DR. VITUS BLOG

QUOTE

STUDENTS
ADOLESCENT EDUCATION
NIGERIA SCHOOLS
CITIZEN EDUCATION
IDIOMS
DISTANCE EDUCATION
200 UNIVERSITIES IN AFRICA
AMERICA NEWS
YOUTH EMPOWERMENT
WHAT IS EDUCATION?
INFORMAL EDUCATION
FORMAL EDUCATION
TRADING
QUALITY EDUCATION
ABSTRACT
THEORY

Posted: 03 May 2019 10:17 AM PDT

It's been four months since Hurricane
Maria, and nearly half million people
in Puerto Rico are still without
power. Rather than sit at home and
feel powerless, 15-year-old Gomez
decided to do something about it. He
started a crowdfunding campaign to
raise money to give solar lamps to
people without power. To date, he's
raised nearly $130,000 and has used
the money to secure almost $3,000
solar lamps and 300 hand-powered
washing machines so that people
without power can have clean clothes
and sheets. Even though his original
fundraising goal was $100,000, Colon
doesn't plan to stop until people no
longer need lamps and washers or
the money runs out. The campaign is
still accepting donations.

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:56 AM PDT

I am blessed, every day of life, Okechukwu chidoluo Vitus

QUOTE

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:53 AM PDT

I am who Am to be, Okechukwu chidoluo Vitus

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:52 AM PDT

List Of Primary School
Subjects In Nigeria
O'Level Leave a comment
All Primary school subjects in Nigeria are
listed here on this page.
Are you searching for Primary School Subjects
that have been approved by the Ministry of
Education and taught at P rimary school level?
Primary Education under the Universal Basic
Education is divided into two levels. The first
level comprises of primary 1-3 and all subjects
aforementioned are taught except pre-
vocational studies.
The second level of primary education
comprises primary 4-6 and includes all
subjects mentioned earlier plus pre-vocational
studies. Let us now look at the various
subjects taught in Primary Schools in Nigeria
in details.
Primary School Subjects
In Nigeria
Mathematics
Mathematics is very essential to the formation
of the child. Mathematics is the bedrock of all
sciences and science-related subjects and it is
very important to for the child to be taught
this at an early stage.
English Language
In Nigeria, the official language or lingua
franca is English and this is the medium of
instruction in schools. Because of this, English
Language is a core subject of the primary
education system in Nigeria.
Nigerian Languages
The National Policy of Education allows
schools to instruct pupils in the language of
their immediate environment. This enables the
preservation of one of our cultural heritage
which is language.
However, schools have the freedom on what
type of language, they should instruct their
pupils.
Basic Science and Technology
This subject helps pupils to be armed with the
basic knowledge of science and technology.
Religion and National Values
Religion and National Values is grouped under
civic education, social studies and security
education. For the religion classes, separate
classes operate for Christian religious studies
and Islamic studies. However, calls have been
made to separate the Christian Religious
Studies and Islamic Studies from the umbrella
body of Religion and National Values so the
can stand independently as they have done
through the years.
Cultural and Creative Arts
Cultural and creative arts help the pupils to
appreciate the diverse cultures in Nigeria and
to learn to be creative in the arts. Pupils are
taught how to draw, paint and mould in
creative arts classes.
Pre-vocational studies
This is a subject that is organised around
specific themes particularly consumer
education and entrepreneurship. Pre-vocational
studies equip the pupils with background
knowledge on skills acquisition.

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:48 AM PDT

The school, a private sector driven
monotechnic, is approved by the
Ministry of Education, having met the
requirements of the National Board for
Technical Education (NBTE).
Muhammad Bello, minister of Federal
Capital Territory, said the establishment
of the school was a proof of FCT
administration's commitment to
encourage innovation, enterprise and
ingenuity, especially in the education
sector.
NAIJ.com (naija.ng) -> Legit.ng Same great
journalism, upgraded for better service!
Minimum Wage: Is N30,000 Too Much for
FG to Pay Workers? - Nigeria Street Gist |
- on Legit TV

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:46 AM PDT

Teachers sacked by terrorist in
north east back to classrooms -
Council
Updated: 45 minutes ago
Author: Nnenna Ibeh
Views: 368
Category: Local news , Education news, Politics
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MESSENGER TELEGRAM
- Teachers working in the north east region
of Nigeria have returned to their classrooms
- The Teachers Registration Council of
Nigeria (TRCN) said that most of the
teachers sacked from the region by Boko
Haram terrorists are back
- TRCN registrar said there are plans to re-
motivate and change the psyche of the
traumatised teachers who returned to
school
The registrar, Teachers Registration
Council of Nigeria (TRCN), Professor
Segun Ajiboye Ajiboye has disclosed that
some of the school teachers who were
sacked by terrorists in the north-eastern
part of the country are back to
classroom.
He said that the Council had commenced
the process of bringing back to the
classrooms, teachers who have deserted
the northeast zone due to terrorism
attacks.
Speaking with journalists in Ibadan, he
said that the plan was to re-motivate and
change the psyche of the traumatised
teachers to return to school.
According to him, some of the teachers
lost their certificates to terrorism but
have been restored by the intervention
of the Council.
The TRCN boss disclosed that bringing
back the teachers would improve
knowledge impartation on students in
North-eastern part of the country.
READ ALSO: Hundreds of motorists
unaccounted for as bandits block
Kaduna-Abuja highway again
"Actually it is disheartening we are
affected we can't pretend. We have lost so
many teachers to insecurity especially in
the northeast. It created trauma. Pupils
left the schools. They don't want to come.
"The teachers themselves left because of
what has happened to their colleagues.
What we are doing is to bring back our
teachers especially in the northeast. A lot
of interventions are going on to re-
motivate the teachers and change their
psyche.
"So many of them left the teaching
profession they don't want to come back
but now sanity is returning and our
teachers are coming back. Some of them
lost their certificates to insurgency," he
said.
On the deadline to register as
professional teacher, Ajiboye disclosed
that full enforcement against
unregistered and unlicensed teachers
would begin in January 2020, adding that
any teacher not registered by the council
by December 31, 2019 will not be allowed
to practice anymore in Nigeria.
He said letter of reminder was being
written to Commissioners of Education
and the Education Secretary in Federal
Capital Territory on the need to ensure
that practising teachers in their states get
valid license before the deadline.
"That deadline stands. In fact the Minister
of Education has directed that TRCN
should do a letter to Commissioners of
Education and Education secretary in the
FCT to remind them about the deadline. By
December 2019 anyone not registered and
licensed by TRCN may not allowed in our
classrooms. by January 2020 enforcement
will begin," he declared.
Meanwhile, Legit.ng previously reported
that the FG on Thursday, April 26,
commissioned the first Abuja School of
Pensions and Retirement Planning
(ASPRP) to provide tertiary education for
acquisition of vital skills and capacity in
pension administration and management.
READ ALSO: NAIJ.com upgrades to
Legit.ng: a letter from our Editor-in-
Chief Bayo Olupohunda

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:40 AM PDT

Smart young girl gets 115 college
acceptances, N1.3b in scholarships
(photo)
Updated: an hour ago
Author: Adams Odunayo
Views: 603
Category: World News, Gossip
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MESSENGER TELEGRAM
A high school senior in New Orleans,
Antoinette Love, has been accepted into 115
colleges and gotten more than $3.7 million
(N1.3b) in scholarship money.
Love recounted to CNN how she kept
applying to different colleges just to see
how many she could get into.
"At first I didn't think I was going to get
this many, but then they just kept coming
and I was like, 'Oh my gosh,'" Love who
has a 3.7 GPA told CNN.
Antoinette Love
READ ALSO: Brilliant Ghanaian student
makes history, graduates with 5.0 GPA at
Russian University (photos)
Love who works part time by selling ties,
cuff links and socks is also involved in
other extra curricular organizations at
the International High School of New
Orleans. She said although she had been
thinking about a couple of universities,
she had no idea the exact school she
wants to attend. She however will make
up her mind by May 1 after checking a
few of them out.
READ ALSO : Meet Jane Onyinyechi Ogwo
the best graduating student at FUTO, she
finished with a 4.9 CGPA
Love who wants to be a teacher likes
painting and taking photos.
For high school students who are
applying to colleges soon, Love advises
them to apply through the Common
Application as well as the Common Black
Application. She also suggests seeking fee
waivers and submitting applications to
schools that don't charge a fee.
NAIJ.com (naija.ng) -> Legit.ng We have
upgraded to serve you better

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:38 AM PDT

There are several features in a new
programme which become a reason for
controversy in the society of Nigeria. The
new secondary school curriculum was the
reason for rumors because of new subjects.
People were questioned about an exception
of Christian Religious Knowledge course.
Read on to find out more facts.
New Nigerian curriculum for secondary schools
The new list of subjects includes:
English studies (compulsory subject);
Mathematics (compulsory subject);
Civic Education (compulsory subject);
Trade/Entrepreneurship Studies
(compulsory subject, the student can
choose one of 34 subjects);
Humanities (Every student can choose
2, 3, 4 or 5 subjects depending on his
or her potential);
Science & Mathematics (Every student
can choose 2, 3, 4 or 5 subjects);
Technology (Every student can choose
2, 3, 4 or 5 subjects);
Business Studies (Senior) (Every
student can choose 2, 3, 4 or 5
subjects).
The main idea of a new curriculum is to
provide more practical experience for
students.
The controversy of new Nigerian curriculum for
secondary schools
The reasons for such changes in new
curriculum for secondary schools in
Nigeria are still unknown. The changes
gained the attention of society and
federal government.
READ ALSO: Nigerian Navy secondary
school: how to enter?
Minister of Education , Mallam Adamu
Adamu reported that the main reason of
all the uproar was presumed exception
of the Christian Religious Knowledge
from the curriculum for secondary
schools in Nigeria for 2018.
Even greater indignation was caused by
the fact that Christian Religious
Knowledge was replaced by Islamic
Religious Knowledge. There are a lot of
rumors about this question, some say
that the government just joined CRK and
IRK in one course, others claim that this
is the result of Muhammadu-led
administration policy of isolationism.
But the official position of the
government is that no religious course
should be removed from the curriculum,
so CRS and IRK should be compulsory for
students.
The representatives of Christian
Association of Nigeria were especially
concerned by such news. The president
of Christian Association Reverend
Samson Ayokunle claimed: " This
curriculum is the brain-child of the
Nigerian Educational Research and
Development Council, an agency of the
Federal Ministry of Education. To us in
CAN, its introduction is an ill wind that
blows nobody any good for so many
reasons."
According to the words of Mr. Amos
Adekunle Aladeseye, the National
Secretary of All Nigeria Conference of
Principals of Secondary Schools
(ANCOPPS) there is no need in any
controversy about this question because
CRS is still in the curriculum. His words
from the conference: " We still teach CRS.
I just don't understand why people are
raising this issue at all. The minister of
education has refuted the claim. We still
teach CRS. It is still taught in my school,
and I am sure that is the same across the
country. "
The chairman of the Nigeria Union of
Teachers (NUT) says that there are even
no much changes in the new curriculum.
According to his words, the new
curriculum is designed more for practical
and technical knowledge.
An official statement terminated all
disputes. The new curriculum grouped
the five subjects under one term
"Religion and National Values
Curriculum" the subjects includes: Civic
Education, Social Studies, Christian
Religious Knowledge, Islamic Studies, and
Security Education.
The official statement said: " The
management of NERDC hereby reiterates
categorically and unequivocally to all
Nigerians that the subject offerings (Civic
Education, Social Studies, Christian
Religious Knowledge, Islamic Studies, and
Security Education) under the Religion
and National Values Curriculum are
distinct, as listed and taught separately on
the timetable. "
According to the words of the
government, the new programme should
be more effective, so we continue to
follow the news of curriculum changes.

STUDENTS

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:34 AM PDT

This article is about learners. For other uses,
see Student (disambiguation) .
This article has multiple issues. Please help
improve it or discuss these issues on the talk
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Taiwan schoolgirls during the time of Japanese
rule there, 1927.
A student is primarily a person enrolled in a
school or other educational institution who
attends classes in a course to attain the
appropriate level of mastery of a subject under
the guidance of an instructor and who devotes
time outside class to do whatever activities the
instructor assigns that are necessary either for
class preparation or to submit evidence of
progress towards that mastery. In the broader
sense, a student is anyone who applies
themselves to the intensive intellectual
engagement with some matter necessary to
master it as part of some practical affair in
which such mastery is basic or decisive.
In the United Kingdom and India, the term
"student" denotes those enrolled in secondary
schools and higher (e.g., college or university);
those enrolled in elementary schools are called
"pupils."
Students of different nationalities at an
international school in Shanghai , China, 2017.
The school does not have a school uniform.
Africa
Nigeria
In Nigeria, education is classified into four
system known as a 6-3-3-4 system of education.
It implies six years in primary school, three years
in junior secondary, three years in senior
secondary and four years in the university.
However, the number of years to be spent in
university is mostly determined by the course of
study. Some courses have longer study length
than others. Those in primary school are often
referred to as pupils. Those in university, as well
as those in secondary school, are being referred
to as students. [ citation needed ]
The Nigerian system of education also has other
recognized categories like the polytechnics and
colleges of education. The Polytechnic gives out
National Diploma and Higher National Diploma
certifications after a period of two years and/or
four years of study respectively.
Higher National Diploma (also known as HND)
can be obtained in a different institution from
where the National Diploma (also known as ND
or OND) was obtained. However, the HND
cannot be obtained without the OND certificate.
On the other hand, colleges of education give out
NCE (Nigerian Certificate in Education) after a
two year period of study.
South Africa
In South Africa, education is divided into four
bands: Foundation Phase (grades 1–3),
Intermediate Phase (grades 4–6), Senior Phase
(grades 7–9), and the Further Education and
Training or FET Phase (grades 10–12). However,
because this division is newer than most
schools in the country, in practice, learners
progress through three different types of school:
primary school (grades 1–3), junior school
(grades 4–7), and high school (grades 8–12).
After the FET phase, learners who pursue further
studies typically take three or four years to
obtain an undergraduate degree or one or two
years to achieve a vocational diploma or
certificate. The number of years spent in
university varies as different courses of study
take different numbers of years. Those in the
last year of high school (Grade 12) are referred
to as 'Matrics' or are in 'Matric' and take the
Grade 12 examinations accredited by the
Umalusi Council (the South African board of
education) in October and November of their
Matric year. Exam papers are set and
administered nationally through the National
Department of Basic Education for government
schools, while many (but not all) private school
Matrics sit for exams set by the Independent
Education Board (IEB), which operates with
semi-autonomy under the requirements of
Umalusi. (The assessment and learning
requirements of both IEB and National exams are
of roughly the same standard. The perceived
better performance of learners within the IEB
exams is largely attributable to their attending
private, better-resourced schools with the much
lower teacher: learner ratios and class sizes
rather than because of fundamental differences in
assessment or learning content). A school year
for the majority of schools in South Africa runs
from January to December, with holidays dividing
the year into terms. Most public or government
schools are 4-term schools and most private
schools are 3-term school, but the 3-term
government or public schools and 4-term private
schools are not rare.
Asia
Singapore
Six years of primary school education in
Singapore is compulsory. [1]
Primary School (Primary 1 to 6)
Secondary School ( Secondary 1 to 4 or 5)
Junior College (Junior College 1 to 2 -
Optional)
There are also schools which have the integrated
program, such as River Valley High School
(Singapore) , which means they stay in the same
school from Secondary 1 to Junior College 2,
without having to take the "O" level examinations
which most students take at the end of
Secondary school.
International Schools are subject to overseas
curriculums, such as the British, American,
Canadian or Australian Boards.
Bangladesh
Primary education is compulsory in Bangladesh.
It is a near crime to not to send children to
primary school when they are of age. But it is
not a punishable crime (sending children to work
instead of school is a crime). Because of the
socio-economic state of Bangladesh, child
labour is sometimes legal. But the guardian
must ensure the primary education. Everyone
who is learning in any institute or even online
may be called a student in Bangladesh.
Sometimes students taking undergraduate
education are called undergraduates and
students taking post-graduate education may be
called post-graduates.
Education System Of Bangladesh:
Educational Level Grade Age
Primary (elementary
school) 1 to 5 6 to
10
Junior Secondary (middle
school) 6 to 8 11 to
13
Secondary (high school) 9 to 10 14 to
15
Higher Secondary
(college / university)
11 to
12
16 to
17 [2]
Brunei
Education is free in Brunei. Darussalam not
limited to government educational institutions
but also private educational institutions. There
are mainly two types of educational institutions:
government or public, and private institutions.
Several stages have to be undergone by the
prospective students leading to higher
qualifications, such as Bachelor's Degree.
Primary School (Year 1 to 6)
Secondary School (Year 7 to 11)
High School [or also known as the Sixth Form
Centers] (Year 12 to 13)
Colleges (Pre-University to Diploma)
University Level (Undergraduate, Postgraduate
and Professional)
It takes six and five years to complete the
primary and secondary levels respectively. Upon
completing these two crucial stages, students/
pupils have freedom to progress to sixth-form
centers, colleges or probably straight to
employment. Students are permitted to progress
towards university level programs in both
government and private university
colleges. [ citation needed ]
Cambodia
Education in Cambodia is free for all the
students who study in Primary School, Secondary
School or High School.
Primary School (Grade 1 to 6)
Secondary School (Grade 7 to 9)
High School (Grade 10 to 12)
College (Year 1 to 3)
University (Year 1 to 4 or 5)
After basic education, students can opt to take a
bachelor's (undergraduate) degree at a higher
education institution (i.e. a college or university),
which normally lasts for four years though the
length of some courses may be longer or shorter
depending on the institution.
India
Indian schoolgirls and a schoolboy in their
school uniform , along with their teachers, in
Delhi NCR.
In India school is categorized in these stages:
Pre-primary (Nursery, Lower Kindergarten or LKG,
Upper Kindergarten or UKG), Primary (Class 1-5),
Secondary (6-10) and Higher Secondary (11-12).
For undergraduate it is 3 years except
Engineering (BTech or BE) which is of 4 years
degree course, Architecture (B.Arch) which is 5
years degree course and Medical (MBBS) which
is of 4.5 years degree course and 1 year
Internship, so 5.5 years.
Nepal
In Nepal 12-year school is categorized in three
stages: Primary school, Secondary school and
Higher Secondary school. For college it averages
four years for a bachelor's degree (except BVSc
and AH which is five years programme and
MBBS which is a five and half years programme)
and two years master's degree.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, 12-year school is categorized in
three stages: Primary school, Secondary school
and Higher Secondary school. It takes five years
for a student to graduate from Primary school,
five years for Secondary school and five years
for Higher Secondary school (also called
College). Most bachelor's degrees span over
four years, followed by a two years master's
degree. [ citation needed]
Philippines
The Philippines is currently in the midst of a
transition to a K-12 (also called K+12) basic
education system. [3][4][5] Education ideally
begins with one year of kinder. Once the
transition is complete, elementary or grade
school comprises grades 1 to 6. Although the
term student may refer to learners of any age or
level, the term 'pupil' is used by the Department
of Education to refer to learners in the
elementary level, particularly in public schools.
Secondary level or high school comprises two
major divisions: grades 7 to 10 will be
collectively referred to as 'junior high school',
whereas grades 11 to 12 will be collectively
referred to as 'senior high school'. The
Department of Education refers to learners in
grade 7 and above as students.
After basic education, students can opt to take a
bachelor's (undergraduate) degree at a higher
education institution (i.e. a college or university),
which normally lasts for four years though the
length of some courses may be longer or shorter
depending on the institution. [ citation needed]
Iran
In Iran 12-year school is categorized in two
stages: Elementary school and High school. It
takes six years for a student to graduate from
elementary school and six years for high school.
High school study is divided into two part: junior
and senior high school. In senior high school,
student can choose between the following six
fields: Mathematics and physics, Science,
Humanities, Islamic science, Vocational, or Work
and knowledge. After graduating from high
school, students acquire a diploma. Having a
diploma, a student can participate in the Iranian
University Entrance Exam or Konkoor in different
fields of Mathematics, Science, Humanities,
languages, and art. The university entrance exam
is conducted every year by National Organization
of Education Assessment, [6] an organization
under the supervision of the Ministry of Science,
Research and Technology which is in charge of
universities in Iran. [7] Members of the Bahá'í
religion, a much-persecuted minority, are
officially forbidden to attend university, in order
to prevent members of the faith becoming
doctors, lawyers or other professionals; however,
Muslim, Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian
people are allowed entry to universities.
Oceania
Australia
Students of Stony Creek State School,
Queensland, 1939
In Australia , Pre-school is optional for three and
four year olds. At age five, children begin
compulsory education at Primary School, known
as Kindergarten in New South Wales, Preparatory
School (prep) in Victoria , and Reception in South
Australia , students then continue to year one
through six (ages 6 to 12). Before 2014, primary
school continued on to year seven in Western
Australia , South Australia and Queensland.
However, the state governments agreed that by
2014, all primary schooling will complete at year
six. Students attend High School in year seven
through twelve (ages 13 – 18). After year twelve,
students may attend tertiary education at
University or vocational training at TAFE
( Technical and Further Education).
New Zealand
In New Zealand , after kindergarten or pre-school,
which is attended from ages three to five,
children begin primary school, 'Year One', at five
years of age. Years One to Six are Primary
School, where children commonly attend local
schools in the area for that specific year group.
Then Year Seven and Year Eight are Intermediate,
and from Year Nine until Year Thirteen, a student
would attend a secondary school or a college.
Europe
Europe uses the traditional, first form, second
form, third form, fourth form, fifth form and six
form grade system which is up to age
eleven. [ citation needed ]
Finland
Students in a lecture on linear algebra at
the Helsinki University of Technology
In Finland a student is called "opiskelija" (plural
being 'opiskelijat'), though children in
compulsory education are called "oppilas" (plural
being 'oppilaat'). First level of education is
"esikoulu" (literally 'preschool'), which used to be
optional, but has been compulsory since the
beginning of year 2015. Children attend esikoulu
the year they turn six, and next year they start
attending "peruskoulu" (literally "basic school",
corresponds to American elementary school,
middle school and junior high), which is
compulsory. Peruskoulu is divided to
"alakoulu" (years 1 through 6) and
"yläkoulu" (years 7 through 9). After compulsory
education most children attend second level
education (toisen asteen koulutus), either lukio
(corresponds to high school) or ammattikoulu
(Vocational School), at which point they are
called students (opiskelija). Some attend
"kymppiluokka", which is a retake on some
yläkoulu's education. [ citation needed ]
To attend ammattikorkeakoulu (University of
applied sciences) or a university a student must
have a second level education. The
recommended graduation time is five years. First
year students are called "fuksi" and students that
have studied more than five years are called
"N:nnen vuoden opiskelija" (Nth year student).
France
The generic term "étudiant" (lit. student) applies
only to someone attending a University or a
school of a similar level, that is to say pupils in
a cursus reserved to people already owning a
Baccalauréat . [ citation needed ] The general term
for a person going to primary or secondary
school is élève. In some French higher education
establishments, a bleu or "bizuth" is a first-year
student. Second-year students are sometimes
called "carrés" (squares). Some other terms may
apply in specific schools, some depending on
the classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles
attended.
Germany
The new graduates of the Europa-Institut
in Germany gather to throw their mortar
boards in the air as part of a graduation
ceremony
In Germany, the German cognate term Student
(male) or "Studentin" (female) is reserved for
those attending a university. University students
in their first year are called Erstsemester or
colloquially Ersties ("firsties"). Different terms for
school students exist, depending on which kind
of school is attended by the student. The
general term for a person going to school is
Schüler or Schülerin . They begin their first four
years in primary school or Volksschule. They
then graduate to a secondary school called
Gymnasium, which is a university preparatory
school. Students attending this school are called
Gymnasiasten , while those attending other
schools are called Hauptschüler or Realschüler.
Students who graduate with the Abitur are called
Abiturienten . The abbreviation stud. + the
abbreviation of the faculty p. e. phil. for
philosophiae is a post-nominal for all students of
a baccalaureus course. The abbreviation cand.
for candidatus + the abbreviation of the faculty is
given as a post-nominal to those close to the
final exams. First name surname, stud. phil. or
First name surname, cand. jur. [ citation needed ]
Ireland
In Ireland, pupils officially start with primary
school which consists of eight years: junior
infants, senior infants, first class to sixth class
(ages 5–11). After primary school, pupils
proceed to the secondary school level. Here they
first enter the junior cycle, which consists of first
year to third year (ages 11–14). At the end of
third year, all students must sit a compulsory
state examination called the Junior Certificate.
After third year, pupils have the option of taking
a "transition year" or fourth year (usually at age
15-16). In transition year pupils take a break
from regular studies to pursue other activities
that help to promote their personal, social,
vocational and educational development, and to
prepares them for their role as autonomous,
participative and responsible members of
society. It also provides a bridge to enable
pupils to make the transition from the more
dependent type of learning associated with the
Junior Cert. to the more independent learning
environment associated with the senior
cycle. [ citation needed ]
After the junior cycle pupils advance to the
senior cycle, which consists of fifth year and
sixth year (usually ages between 16 and 18). At
the end of the sixth year a final state
examination is required to be sat by all pupils,
known as the Leaving Certificate . The Leaving
Cert. is the basis for all Irish pupils who wish to
do so to advance to higher education via a
points system. A maximum of 625 points can
be achieved. All higher education courses have a
minimum of points needed for
admission. [ citation needed ]
At Trinity College, Dublin under-graduate
students are formally called "junior freshmen",
"senior freshmen", "junior sophister" or "senior
sophister", according to the year they have
reached in the typical four year degree course.
Sophister is another term for a sophomore,
though the term is rarely used in other
institutions and is largely limited to Trinity
College Dublin.
At university, the term "fresher" is used to
describe new students who are just beginning
their first year. The term, "first year" is the more
commonly used and connotation-free term for
students in their first year. The week at the start
of a new year is called "Freshers' Week " or
"Welcome Week", with a programme of special
events to welcome new students. An
undergraduate in the last year of study before
graduation is generally known as a "finalist."
Italy
Admission of a student in "Germanic
Nation", University of Bologna , 15th
century
In Italian, a matricola is a first-year student.
Some other terms may apply in specific schools,
some depending on the liceo classico or liceo
scientifico attended.
According to the goliardic initiation traditions the
grades granted (following approximately the year
of enrollment at university) are: matricola
(freshman), fagiolo (sophomore), colonna
(junior), and anziano (senior), but most of the
distinctions are rarely used outside Goliardia.
Sweden
In Sweden, only those studying at university level
are called students ( student, plural studenter). To
graduate from upper secondary school
( gymnasium) is called ta studenten (literally "to
take the student"), but after the graduation
festivities, the graduate is no longer a student
unless he or she enrolls at university-level
education. At lower levels, the word elev (plural
elever ) is used. As a general term for all stages
of education, the word studerande (plural also
studerande ) is used, meaning 'studying [person]'.
United Kingdom
Traditionally, the term "student" is reserved for
people studying at university level in the United
Kingdom .
At universities in the UK, the term "fresher" is
used informally to describe new students who
are just beginning their first year. Although it is
not unusual to call someone a fresher after their
first few weeks at university, they are typically
referred to as "first years" or "first year students".
The ancient Scottish University of St Andrews
uses the terms "bejant" for a first year (from the
French " bec-jaune " – "yellow beak", "fledgling").
Second years are called "semi-bejants", third
years are known as "tertians", and fourth years,
or others in their final year of study, are called
"magistrands".
In England and Wales , primary school begins
with an optional "nursery" year followed by
reception and then move on to "year one, year
two" and so on until "year six". In state schools,
children join secondary school when they are
11–12 years old in what used to be called "first
form" and is now known as "year 7". They go up
to year 11 (formerly "fifth form") and then join
the sixth form, either at the same school or at a
separate sixth form college. A pupil entering a
private, fee-paying school (usually at age 13)
would join the "third form" — equivalent to year
9. Many schools have an alternate name for first
years, some with a derogatory basis, but in
others acting merely as a description — for
example "shells" (non-derogatory) or
"grubs" (derogatory).
In Northern Ireland and Scotland, it is very
similar but with some differences. Pupils start
off in nursery or reception aged 3 to 4, and then
start primary school in "P1" (P standing for
primary) or year 1. They then continue primary
school until "P7" or year 7. After that they start
secondary school at 11 years old, this is called
"1st year" or year 8 in Northern Ireland, or "S1" in
Scotland. They continue secondary school until
the age of 16 at "5th year", year 12 or "S5", and
then it is the choice of the individual pupil to
decide to continue in school and (in Northern
Ireland) do AS levels (known as "lower sixth")
and then the next year to do A levels (known as
"upper sixth"). In Scotland, students aged 16–18
take Highers, followed by Advanced Highers.
Alternatively, pupils can leave and go into full-
time employment or to start in a technical
college.
Large increases in the size of student
populations in the UK and the effect this has had
on some university towns or on areas of cities
located near universities have become a concern
in the UK since 2000. A report by Universities
UK, " Studentification: A Guide to Opportunities,
Challenges and Practice " (2006) has explored the
subject and made various recommendations. [8]
A particular problem in many locations is seen
as the impact of students on the availability,
quality and price of rented and owner-occupied
property.
Americas
Canada
Further information: Education in Canada
Students of the Cégep de St-Hyacinthe in
Quebec working in a computer lab
Education in Canada is within the constitutional
jurisdiction of the provinces , and the overall
curriculum is overseen by the provincial
governments. As there is no overall national
coordinating authority, the way the educational
stages are grouped and named differs from
region to region. Education is generally divided
into primary education, followed by secondary
education, and post-secondary education.
Primary and secondary education are generally
divided into numbered grades from 1 to 12,
although the first grade may be preceded by
kindergarten (optional in many provinces).
Ontario and Quebec offer a pre-kindergarten ,
called a "junior kindergarten" in Ontario, and a
"garderie" in Quebec.
Education in Ontario once involved an Ontario
Academic Credit (OAC) as university preparation,
but that was phased out in 2007, and now all
provinces except Quebec have 12 grades. The
OAC was informally known as "grade 13" and the
name was also used to refer to the students who
took it.
Education in Quebec differs from the other
provinces in that it has an école primaire
(literally "primary school") consisting of grades
1-6, and an école secondaire (literally "secondary
school") consisting of secondaries I-V.
Secondaries I-V are equivalent to grades 7-11. A
student graduating from high school (grade 11)
can then either complete a three-year college
program or attend a two-year pre-university
program required before attending university. In
some English High Schools, as well as in most
French schools, high school students will refer to
secondary 1-5 as year one through five. So if
someone in Secondary three is asked "what
grade/year are you in?" they will reply "three" or
"sec 3". It is presumed that the person asking
the question knows that they are not referring to
"Grade 3" but rather "Secondary 3". This can be
confusing for those outside of Quebec.
In some provinces, grades 1 through 6 are called
"elementary school", grades 6 to 8 are called
"middle school" or "junior high school", and
grades 9 to 12 are considered high school.
Other provinces, such as British Columbia,
mainly divide schooling into elementary school
(Kindergarten to grade 7) and secondary school
(grades 8 through 12). In Alberta and Nova
Scotia, elementary consists of kindergarten
through grade 6. Junior high consists of Grades
7-9. High school consists of Grades 10-12. In
English provinces, the high school (known as
academy or secondary school) years can be
referred to simply as first, second, third and
fourth year. Some areas call it by grade such as
grade 10, grade 11 and grade 12.
The difference between college and university is
significantly different from in the United States or
even the United Kingdom. A Canadian college is
more similar to an American community college
but also the British, French and other European
and British Commonwealth such as Australian
and New Zealand etc., on the other hand. In
contrast, a Canadian university is also quite
comparable to an American university as well as
many other universities among the English-
speaking world and Francosphere. In Canada,
colleges are generally geared for individuals
seeking applied careers, while universities are
geared for individuals seeking more academic
careers.
University students are generally classified as
first, second, third or fourth-year students, and
the American system of classifying them as
"freshmen", "sophomores", "juniors" and "seniors"
is seldom used or even understood in Canada. In
some occasions, they can be called "senior
ones", "twos", "threes" and "fours".
United States
In the United States, the first official year of
schooling is called kindergarten, which is why
the students are called kindergarteners.
Kindergarten is optional in most states, but few
students skip this level. Pre-kindergarten, also
known as "preschool " (and sometimes shortened
to "Pre-K") is becoming a standard of education
as academic expectations for the youngest
students continue to rise. Many public schools
offer pre-kindergarten programs.
Students of USA's Tulane University : at its
bookstore [ top photo], in a class photo (with
their lady teacher sitting on extreme right)
[ middle photo], and entering the class [ bottom
photo]
In the United States there are 12 years of
mandatory schooling. The first eight are solely
referred to by numbers (e.g. 1st grade, 5th
grade) so students may be referred to as 1st
graders, 5th graders, then once in middle school
before high school you are ratio referred to as
6th, 7th, 8th graders. Upon entering high school,
grades 9 through 12 (high school ) also have
alternate names for students, namely freshman,
sophomore, junior and senior. The actual
divisions of which grade levels belong to which
division (whether elementary, middle, junior high
or high school) is a matter decided by state or
local jurisdictions.
Accordingly, college students are often called
Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors
(respectively), unless their undergraduate
program calls for more than the traditional 4
years.
First year
The first year of college or high school is
referred to as Freshman year. A freshman (slang
alternatives that are usually derogatory in nature
include "fish", "new-g", "fresher", "frosh",
"newbie", "freshie", "snotter", "fresh-meat",
"skippie", etc.) is a first-year student in college,
university or high school.
Second year
In the U.S., a sophomore, also called a "soph,"
is a second-year student. Outside the United
States, the term Sophomore is rarely used, with
second-year students simply called "second
years". Folk etymology indicates that the word
means " wise fool "; consequently "sophomoric"
means "pretentious, bombastic, inflated in style
or manner; immature, crude,
superficial" (according to the Oxford English
Dictionary ). It is widely assumed to be formed
from Greek "sophos", meaning "wise", and
" moros" meaning "foolish", although the
etymology suggests an origin from the now-
defunct "sophumer", an obsolete variant of
" sophism ". [9]
Post-second year
Students from the
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
In the U.S., a Junior is a student in the
penultimate (usually third) year and a Senior is a
student in the last (usually fourth) year of
college , university, or high school . A student who
takes more than the normal number of years to
graduate is sometimes referred to as a " super
senior ". [10] This term is often used in college,
but can be used in high school as well. The
term underclassman is used to refer collectively
to Freshmen and Sophomores, and
Upperclassman to refer collectively to Juniors
and Seniors, sometimes even Sophomores. The
term Middler is used to describe a third-year
student of a school (generally college) that
offers five years of study. In this situation, the
fourth and fifth years would be referred to as
Junior and Senior years, respectively, and the
first two years would be the Freshman and
Sophomore years.
Graduate Students
A graduate student is a student who continues
his/her education after graduation. Some
examples of graduate programs are: business
school , law school, medical school, and
veterinary school . Degrees earned in graduate
programs include the Master's degree , a
research doctoral degree, or a first professional
degree .
Vocational School
Students attending vocational school focus on
their jobs and learning how to work in specific
fields of work. A vocational program typically
takes much less time to complete than a four-
year degree program, lasting 12–24 months. [11]
Liberal Arts that are required in four-year
Universities are less important to these students
because the skills necessary for their careers
take precedence in order for a timely completion
of the program.
Student politics
Main article: Student politics
Students have their own current of politics and
activism on and off campus. The student rights
movement has centered itself on the
empowerment of students similar to the labor
movement.
Mature students
Main article: Adult learner
A mature, non-traditional, or adult student in
tertiary education (at a university or a college) is
normally classified as an (undergraduate)
student who is at least 21–23 years old at the
start of their course and usually having been out
of the education system for at least two years.
Mature students can also include students who
have been out of the education system for
decades, or students with no secondary
education. Mature students also make up
graduate and postgraduate populations by
demographic of age.
Student pranks
Main article: Student prank
University students have been associated with
pranks and japes since the creation of
universities in the Middle Ages. [12][13][14][15]
[16] These can often involve petty crime, such as
the theft of traffic cones and other public
property, [17] or hoaxes. It is also not uncommon
for students from one school to steal or deface
the mascot of a rival school. [18] In fact, pranks
play such a significant part in student culture that
numerous books have been published that focus
on the issue. [19][20]
Other terms
Students who are repeating a grade level of
schooling due to poor grades are sometimes
referred to as having been "held back" or
"kept back". In Singapore they are described
as "retained". In the Philippines they are
called "repeater".
The term 'pupil' (originally a Latin term for a
minor as the ward of an adult guardian, etc.)
is used in some Commonwealth primary and
secondary schools (particularly in England
and Wales) instead of "student", but once
attending further education (at a sixth-form
college) or higher education (at university for
example), the term "student" is standard. The
term pupil is also used in the Philippines by
the Department of Education to refer to
learners currently in elementary school; the
term student is used for by the Department of
Education for learners in high school.
The United States military academies officially
use only numerical terms, but there are
colloquial expressions used in everyday
speech. In order from first year to fourth year,
students are referred to as "fourth-class",
"third-class", "second-class", and "first-class"
cadets or midshipmen. Unofficially, other
terms are used, for example at the United
States Military Academy, freshmen are called
"plebes", sophomores are called "yearlings" or
"yuks", juniors are called "cows", and seniors
are called "firsties". Some universities also
use numerical terms to identify classes;
students enter as "first-years" and graduate as
"fourth-years" (or, in some cases, "fifth-years",
"sixth-years", etc.).
Idiomatic use
" Freshman" and "sophomore " are sometimes
used figuratively , almost exclusively in the United
States, to refer to a first or second effort ("the
singer's sophomore album "), or to a politician's
first or second term in office ("freshman
senator") or an athlete 's first or second year on a
professional sports team. "Junior" and "senior"
are not used in this figurative way to refer to
third and fourth years or efforts, because of
those words' broader meanings of "younger" and
" older." A junior senator is therefore not one who
is in a third term of office, but merely one who
has not been in the Senate as long as the other
senator from their state . Confusingly, this means
that it is possible to be both a "freshman
Senator" and a "senior Senator" simultaneously:
for example, if a Senator wins election in 2008,
and then the other Senator from the same state
steps down and a new Senator elected in 2010,
the former Senator is both senior Senator (as in
the Senate for two years more) and a freshman
Senator (since still in the first term).
International Students'
Day
International Students' Day (17 November)
remembers the anniversary of the 1939 Nazi
storming of the University of Prague after student
demonstrations against the German occupation
of Czechoslovakia . Germans closed all Czech
universities and colleges, sent over 1200
students to Nazi concentration camps, and had
nine student leaders executed (on November
17). [21]
See also
student
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia
Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Dormitory
Freshman 15
International student
Learning
School bullying
Bullying in academia
Bullying in teaching
School uniform
Student activism
Student club
Student orientation
Student resources
School counselor
Student financial aid in the United
States
Study skills
Tutor
Studentification
Teacher
University student retention
Youth
References
1. ^ Moe.gov.sg
2. ^ "Bangladesh Education System" .
3. ^ K to 12 Toolkit Accessed 21 October
2016
4. ^ K to 12 Curriculum Guides Accessed
21 October 2016
5. ^ Republic Act 10533 Accessed 21
October 2016
6. ^ Sanjesh.org
7. ^ " ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺕ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ، ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻘﺎﺕ ﻭ ﻓﻨﺎﻭﺭﯼ - ﺻﻔﺤﺎﺕ -
ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺍﺻﻠﯽ " .
8. ^ Studentification: A Guide to
Opportunities, Challenges and Practice
9. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary" .
Etymonline.com. Retrieved 8 December
2012.
10. ^ Definition of a super senior retrieved 5
October 2006.
11. ^ "Minnesota Vocational Schools, Trade
Schools, Technical Schools - RWM.org" .
12. ^ "Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library:
FAQ Student pranks" . Princeton.edu. 24
April 2012. Archived from the original
on 2 December 2012. Retrieved 8
December 2012.
13. ^ "Blog Archive » Student Pranks" .
Kiwiblog. 21 October 2006. Retrieved 8
December 2012.
14. ^ Watts, Jonathan, "Student prank that
gave the Chinese a fit of the willies" ,
The Guardian , London, 1 November 2003.
15. ^ "Student Pranks! Attention!" .
Essaymama. 3 September 2014.
16. ^ Ayala, Jamie, "Sticky student prank
injures teacher" Archived 2007-09-27
at the Wayback Machine, FOX11AZ.com ,
Tucson, Arizona, 14 June 2007.
17. ^ "Nightmare on student street" .
18. ^ Miller, Eli, "Oski and Tree Have Rowdy,
Long History" , The Daily Californian , 22
November 2002. Archived September
20, 2004, at the Wayback Machine
19. ^ Peterson, T.F., Nightwork: A History of
Hacks and Pranks at MIT, 2003.
20. ^ Steinberg, Neil, If at All Possible, Involve
a Cow: The Book
21. ^ "The 17th of November: Remembering
Jan Opletal, martyr of an occupied
nation ". Radio Prague.
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0
unless otherwise noted.
Terms of Use • Privacy • Desktop

ADOLESCENT EDUCATION

Posted: 03 May 2019 10:17 AM PDT

The programs in Adolescence Education
prepare teacher candidates to teach Biology,
Chemistry, Math, English, and Social Studies
to students in grades 7-12. Our programs are
structured to provide teacher candidates with
the principles for engaging teaching and
learning in the content areas.
Education: Adolescence - Mount Saint Mary
College
https://www.msmc.edu › Undergraduate
Adolescence Education | Fordham
https://www.fordham.edu › info › adoles...
The Adolescence Education programs build
on previously acquired subject-matter
knowledge, and provide ...
Education: Adolescence - Mount Saint Mary
College
https://www.msmc.edu › Undergraduate
The programs in Adolescence Education
prepare teacher candidates to teach Biology,
Chemistry, Math, English, and Social Studies
to students in grades 7-12. Our programs are
structured to provide teacher candidates with
the principles for engaging teaching and
learning in the content areas.

NIGERIA SCHOOLS

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:25 AM PDT

CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION FOR THE
21ST CENTURY
WHAT IS MEANT BY CITIZENSHIP
EDUCATION?
Citizenship education can be
defined as educating children, from
early childhood, to become clear-
thinking and enlightened citizens
who participate in decisions
concerning society. 'Society' is here
understood in the special sense of
a nation with a circumscribed
territory which is recognized as a
state.
A knowledge of the nation's
institutions, and also an awareness
that the rule of law applies to
social and human relationships,
obviously form part of any
citizenship education course. Taken
in this sense, citizenship education
is based on the distinction
between:
the individual as a subject
of ethics and law, entitled
to all the rights inherent in
the human condition
(human rights); and
the citizen – entitled to
the civil and political
rights recognized by the
national constitution of the
country concerned.
All human beings are both
individuals and citizens of the
society to which they belong.
Therefore, human rights and citizen
rights are interdependent.
Men, women and children all come
into the world as individual human
beings. Thanks to the immense
historical conquest of human rights,
we are equal, in rights and dignity,
to all other human beings. When
citizenship education has the
purpose of 'educating future
citizens' it must necessarily
address children, young people and
adults, who are living beings,
having the status of human beings
endowed with conscience and
reason. It cannot, therefore, exclude
consideration of individuals as
subjects, each with individual
characteristics.
Moreover, human rights include civil
and political rights, the latter
obviously relating to the rights and
obligations of citizens. Thus a
comprehensive human rights
education takes account of
citizenship, and considers that good
citizenship is connected with human
rights as a whole.
Conversely, citizenship education
which trains 'good' citizens,
ie. citizens aware of the human and
political issues at stake in their
society or nation, requires from
each citizen ethical and moral
qualities. All forms of citizenship
education inculcate (or aim at
inculcating) respect for others and
recognition of the equality of all
human beings; and at combating all
forms of discrimination (racist,
gender-based, religious, etc.) by
fostering a spirit of tolerance and
peace among human beings.
Thus, when we speak of the
purposes to be ascribed to either
citizenship education (producing
citizens with moral qualities) or
human rights education (comprising
a knowledge of the social and
political rights of all human beings,
and their recognition) we inevitably
end up with the complementarity
between citizenship and human
rights.
Depending on the cultural traditions
of each education system, we shall
have, in some cases, civics
education, comprising a knowledge
of human rights and their exercise,
and in others, human rights
education, stressing civil and
political rights as the basis of
citizenship, and hence the national
features assumed by these rights
and guaranteed by states.
Bearing in mind this
complementarity, citizenship
education means not only
'educating citizens' but also
'training children for adulthood and
citizenship'.
Citizenship education has, therefore,
three main objectives:
educating people in
citizenship and human
rights through an
understanding of the
principles and institutions
[which govern a state or
nation];
learning to exercise one's
judgement and critical
faculty; and
acquiring a sense of
individual and community
responsibilities.
These three objectives correspond
both to educating the individual as
a subject of ethics and law, and to
educating citizens. These objectives
suggest four major themes for
citizenship education:
The relations between
individuals and society:
individual and collective
freedoms, and rejection of
any kind of discrimination.
The relations between
citizens and the
government: what is
involved in democracy and
the organization of the
state.
The relations between the
citizen and democratic
life.
The responsibility of the
individual and the citizen
in the international
community.
DEMOCRATIC CULTURE AND
CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
If there is one idea inherent in
civics education, because it
concerns politics and institutions, it
is the idea of democracy .
Comprehensive citizenship
education cannot dispense with this
concept or with a knowledge of the
institutions that enable a country to
function democratically.
Rather than confining ourselves to
noting and describing institutions
(the necessary but not sufficient
requirement for civics education),
we should explain how the
operation of the machinery of state
respects government of the people
by the people, and makes it
accountable to citizens.
However, this way of tackling
democracy may seem remote and
foreign to the world of school and
of children. It is therefore desirable
to imbue the whole of school life
with a culture of democracy.
Educational practice is of equal
value with knowledge when we
come to tackle civics education.
One of the major flaws in civics
instruction has been that it fails to
bring democracy to life in schools,
and remains at the stage of merely
enunciating principles and
describing institutions. When the
organization of a school does not
lead to a democratic mode of
operating on which pupils can give
their opinions, children and
adolescents lose interest in
citizenship and see only the
mismatch between what adults say
and what they do, between
knowledge and action, a mismatch
which they usually call 'hypocrisy'.
Schools should therefore set up
'governing boards' with
representatives of pupils and staff,
and other bodies in which pupils
express their views and in which
decisions are taken in consultation
with everyone, both young people
and adults. The representation of
pupils in these various bodies can
and should be achieved by an open
election system which has the
same qualities of transparency as
in any democracy worthy of the
name.
If we are to develop a credible
civics education, respect for others
– pupils and teachers,
administrators and minor
employees – and non-violence in
attitudes and behaviour must be
the rule in schools.
Respect for others, and their
dignity, in the same way as the
self-respect of a free autonomous
individual, springs from each
individual's personal ethic, the will
to 'live together, with and for others
in just institutions'.
These qualities, whether described
as 'moral' or 'ethical', are required
of all human beings and all
citizens. They form part of both
civic 'virtues' and individual
'virtues'. They enable each
individual to live as a 'good'
citizen.
In other words, in citizenship
education, respect for the 'Other',
regarded as one's equal, with his or
her individual differences and
distinctive physical, intellectual and
cultural features, is to be explained
and above all experienced in daily
life in all schools. Based on these
principles of equal dignity and
respect for others, citizenship
education has the task of
combating all forms of negative
discrimination and racism, sexism
and religious fanaticism.
Thus citizenship education can be
regarded as an ethical (or moral)
education as well as education in
citizenship.

CITIZEN EDUCATION

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:20 AM PDT

IDIOMS

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:15 AM PDT

An idiom is a phrase or an expression that
has a figurative, or sometimes literal,
meaning. Categorized as formulaic language,
an idiom's figurative meaning is different from
the literal meaning. There are thousands of
idioms, occurring frequently...

DISTANCE EDUCATION

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:11 AM PDT

Distance education or long-distance learning is
the education of students who may not always
be physically present at a school. [1][2]
Traditionally, this usually involved
correspondence courses wherein the student
corresponded with the school via post. Today it
involves online education . Courses that are
conducted (51 percent or more) [3] are either
hybrid , [4] blended [5] or 100% distance learning.
Massive open online courses (MOOCs), offering
large-scale interactive participation and open
access through the World Wide Web or other
network technologies, are recent developments
in distance education. [1] A number of other
terms (distributed learning, e-learning, online
learning, virtual classroom etc.) are used roughly
synonymously with distance education.
History
One of the earliest attempts was advertised in
1728. This was in the Boston Gazette for "Caleb
Philipps, Teacher of the new method of Short
Hand ", who sought students who wanted to learn
through weekly mailed lessons. [6]
The first distance education course in the
modern sense was provided by Sir Isaac Pitman
in the 1840s, who taught a system of shorthand
by mailing texts transcribed into shorthand on
postcards and receiving transcriptions from his
students in return for correction. The element of
student feedback was a crucial innovation of
Pitman's system. [7] This scheme was made
possible by the introduction of uniform postage
rates across England in 1840. [8]
This early beginning proved extremely
successful, and the Phonographic
Correspondence Society was founded three years
later to establish these courses on a more
formal basis. The Society paved the way for the
later formation of Sir Isaac Pitman Colleges
across the country. [9]
The first correspondence school in the United
States was the Society to Encourage Studies at
Home , which was founded in 1873. [10]
University correspondence
courses
The University of London was the first university
to offer distance learning degrees, establishing
its External Programme in 1858. The background
to this innovation lay in the fact that the
institution (later known as University College
London ) was non-denominational and, given the
intense religious rivalries at the time, there was
an outcry against the "godless" university. The
issue soon boiled down to which institutions had
degree -granting powers and which institutions
did not. [11]
The London University in 1827, drawn by
Thomas Hosmer Shepherd .
The compromise solution that emerged in 1836
was that the sole authority to conduct the
examinations leading to degrees would be given
to a new officially recognized entity called the
" University of London ", which would act as
examining body for the University of London
colleges, originally University College London
and King's College London , and award their
students University of London degrees. As
Sheldon Rothblatt states: "Thus arose in nearly
archetypal form the famous English distinction
between teaching and examining , here embodied
in separate institutions." [11]
With the state giving examining powers to a
separate entity, the groundwork was laid for the
creation of a programme within the new
university which would both administer
examinations and award qualifications to
students taking instruction at another institution
or pursuing a course of self-directed study.
Referred to as "People's University" by Charles
Dickens because it provided access to higher
education to students from less affluent
backgrounds, the External Programme was
chartered by Queen Victoria in 1858, making the
University of London the first university to offer
distance learning degrees to students. [12][13]
Enrollment increased steadily during the late
19th century, and its example was widely copied
elsewhere. [14] This program is now known as
the University of London International Programme
and includes Postgraduate, Undergraduate and
Diploma degrees created by colleges such as
the London School of Economics, Royal
Holloway and Goldsmiths. [13]
William Rainey Harper ,
encouraged the
development of external
university courses at the
new University of
Chicago in the 1890s.
In the United States, William Rainey Harper , first
president of the University of Chicago , celebrated
the concept of extended education, whereby the
research university had satellite colleges in the
wider community. [ citation needed ]
In 1892, Harper encouraged correspondence
courses to further promote education, an idea
that was put into practice by Chicago, Wisconsin,
Columbia, and several dozen other universities by
the 1920s Columbia University . [15][16]
Enrollment in the largest private for-profit school
based in Scranton, Pennsylvania , the International
Correspondence Schools grew explosively in the
1890s. Founded in 1888 to provide training for
immigrant coal miners aiming to become state
mine inspectors or foremen, it enrolled 2500
new students in 1894 and matriculated 72,000
new students in 1895. By 1906 total enrollments
reached 900,000. The growth was due to
sending out complete textbooks instead of single
lessons, and the use of 1200 aggressive in-
person salesmen. [17][18] There was a stark
contrast in pedagogy:
Education was a high priority in the Progressive
Era, as American high schools and colleges
expanded greatly. For men who were older or
were too busy with family responsibilities, night
schools were opened, such as the YMCA school
in Boston that became Northeastern University .
Outside the big cities, private correspondence
schools offered a flexible, narrowly focused
solution. [20] Large corporations systematized
their training programs for new employees. The
National Association of Corporation Schools
grew from 37 in 1913 to 146 in 1920. Starting in
the 1880s, private schools opened across the
country which offered specialized technical
training to anyone who enrolled, not just the
employees of one company. Starting in
Milwaukee in 1907, public schools began
opening free vocational programs. [21]
Only a third of the American population lived in
cities of 100,000 or more population In 1920; to
reach the rest, correspondence techniques had to
be adopted. Australia, with its vast distances,
was especially active; the University of
Queensland established its Department of
Correspondence Studies in 1911. [22] In South
Africa, the University of South Africa, formerly an
examining and certification body, started to
present distance education tuition in 1946. The
International Conference for Correspondence
Education held its first meeting in 1938. [23] The
goal was to provide individualized education for
students, at low cost, by using a pedagogy of
testing, recording, classification, and
differentiation. [24][25] The organization has
since been renamed as the International Council
for Open and Distance Education (ICDE), with
headquarters in Oslo, Norway. [26]
Open universities
Walton Hall , renovated in 1970 to act as
the headquarters of the newly
established Open University . (Artist:
Hilary French)
The Open University in the United Kingdom was
founded by the-then Labour government led by
Prime Minister, Harold Wilson , based on the
vision of Michael Young . Planning commenced
in 1965 under the Minister of State for
Education , Jennie Lee, who established a model
for the Open University (OU) as one of widening
access to the highest standards of scholarship
in higher education, and set up a planning
committee consisting of university vice-
chancellors, educationalists and television
broadcasters, chaired by Sir Peter Venables. The
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC ) Assistant
Director of Engineering at the time, James
Redmond , had obtained most of his
qualifications at night school, and his natural
enthusiasm for the project did much to
overcome the technical difficulties of using
television to broadcast teaching
programmes. [ citation needed ]
The Open University revolutionised the scope of
the correspondence program and helped to
create a respectable learning alternative to the
traditional form of education. It has been at the
forefront of developing new technologies to
improve the distance learning service[27] as well
as undertaking research in other disciplines.
Walter Perry was appointed the OU's first vice-
chancellor in January 1969, and its foundation
secretary was Anastasios Christodoulou . The
election of the new Conservative government
under the leadership of Edward Heath , in 1970;
led to budget cuts under Chancellor of the
Exchequer Iain Macleod (who had earlier called
the idea of an Open University "blithering
nonsense"). [28] However, the OU accepted its
first 25,000 students in 1971, adopting a radical
open admissions policy. At the time, the total
student population of conventional universities in
the United Kingdom was around
130,000. [ citation needed ]
Athabasca University , Canada's Open University,
was created in 1970 and followed a similar,
though independently developed, pattern. [29] The
Open University inspired the creation of Spain's
National University of Distance Education
(1972) [30] and Germany's FernUniversität in
Hagen (1974). [31] There are now many similar
institutions around the world, often with the
name "Open University" (in English or in the local
language). [ citation needed ]
Most open universities use distance education
technologies as delivery methods, though some
require attendance at local study centres or at
regional "summer schools". Some open
universities have grown to become mega-
universities, [32] a term coined to denote
institutions with more than 100,000
students. [33]
Technologies
Internet technology has enabled many forms of
distance learning through open educational
resources and facilities such as e-learning and
MOOC s. Although the expansion of the Internet
blurs the boundaries, distance education
technologies are divided into two modes of
delivery: synchronous learning and asynchronous
learning.
In synchronous learning, all participants are
"present" at the same time. In this regard, it
resembles traditional classroom teaching
methods despite the participants being located
remotely. It requires a timetable to be organized.
Web conferencing , videoconferencing,
educational television, instructional television are
examples of synchronous technology, as are
direct-broadcast satellite (DBS), internet radio,
live streaming , telephone, and web-based
VoIP. [34] Web conferencing software helps to
facilitate meetings in distance learning courses
and usually contain additional interaction tools
such as text chat, polls, hand raising, emoticons
etc. These tools also support asynchronous
participation by students being able to listen to
recordings of synchronous sessions. Immersive
environments (notably SecondLife) have also
been used to enhance participant presence in
distance education courses. Another form of
synchronous learning that has been entering the
classroom over the last couple of years is the
use of robot proxies[35] including those that
allow sick students to attend classes. [36]
Some universities have been starting to use
robot proxies to enable more engaging
synchronous hybrid classes where both remote
and in person students can be present and
interact using telerobotics devices such as the
Kubi Telepresence robot stand that looks around
and the Double Robot that roams around. With
these telepresence robots, the remote students
have a seat at the table or desk instead of being
on a screen on the wall. [37][38]
In asynchronous learning, participants access
course materials flexibly on their own schedules.
Students are not required to be together at the
same time. Mail correspondence, which is the
oldest form of distance education, is an
asynchronous delivery technology, as are
message board forums, e-mail , video and audio
recordings , print materials, voicemail , and
fax . [34]
The two methods can be combined. Many
courses offered by both open universities and an
increasing number of campus based institutions
use periodic sessions of residential or day
teaching to supplement the sessions delivered at
a distance. [39] This type of mixed distance and
campus based education has recently come to
be called "blended learning" or less often "hybrid
learning". Many open universities uses a blend of
technologies and a blend of learning modalities
(face-to-face, distance, and hybrid) all under the
rubric of "distance learning".
Distance learning can also use interactive radio
instruction (IRI), interactive audio instruction
(IAI), online virtual worlds , digital games,
webinars, and webcasts, all of which are referred
to as e-Learning. [39]
Radio and television
The rapid spread of film in the 1920s and radio
in the 1930s led to proposals to use it for
distance education. [41] By 1938, at least 200
city school systems, 25 state boards of
education, and many colleges and universities
broadcast educational programs for the public
schools. [42] One line of thought was to use
radio as a master teacher.
A typical setup came in Kentucky in 1948 when
John Wilkinson Taylor , president of the University
of Louisville, teamed up with NBC to use radio
as a medium for distance education, The
chairman of the Federal Communications
Commission endorsed the project and predicted
that the "college-by-radio" would put "American
education 25 years ahead". The University was
owned by the city, and local residents would pay
the low tuition rates, receive their study
materials in the mail, and listen by radio to live
classroom discussions that were held on
campus. [44] Physicist Daniel Q. Posin also was
a pioneer in the field of distance education when
he hosted a televised course through DePaul
University . [45]
Charles Wedemeyer of the University of
Wisconsin–Madison also promoted new
methods. From 1964 to 1968, the Carnegie
Foundation funded Wedemeyer's Articulated
Instructional Media Project (AIM) which brought
in a variety of communications technologies
aimed at providing learning to an off-campus
population. The radio courses faded away in the
1950s. [46] Many efforts to use television along
the same lines proved unsuccessful, despite
heavy funding by the Ford Foundation . [47][48]
[49]
From 1970 to 1972 the Coordinating
Commission for Higher Education in California
funded Project Outreach to study the potential of
telecourses. The study included the University of
California, California State University and the
community colleges. This study led to
coordinated instructional systems legislation
allowing the use of public funds for non-
classroom instruction and paved the way for the
emergence of telecourses as the precursor to the
online courses and programs of today. The
Coastline Community Colleges , The Dallas
County Community College District , and Miami
Dade Community College led the way. The Adult
Learning Service of the US Public Broadcasting
Service came into being and the "wrapped"
series, and individually produced telecourse for
credit became a significant part of the history of
distance education and online learning.
Internet
Main article: Virtual education
The widespread use of computers and the
internet have made distance learning easier and
faster, and today virtual schools and virtual
universities deliver full curricula online. [50] The
capacity of Internet to support voice, video, text
and immersion teaching methods made earlier
distinct forms of telephone, videoconferencing,
radio, television, and text based education
somewhat redundant. However, many of the
techniques developed and lessons learned with
earlier media are used in Internet delivery.
The first completely online courses for graduate
credit were offered by Connected Education ,
starting in the Fall of 1985, leading to the MA in
Media Studies from The New School . [51] The
first new and fully online university was founded
in 1994 as the Open University of Catalonia ,
headquartered in Barcelona, Spain. In 1999
Jones International University was launched as
the first fully online university accredited by a
regional accrediting association in the US. [52]
Between 2000 and 2008, enrollment in distance
education courses increased rapidly in almost
every country in both developed and developing
countries. [53] Many private, public, non-profit
and for-profit institutions worldwide now offer
distance education courses from the most basic
instruction through to the highest levels of
degree and doctoral programs. New York
University , International University Canada , for
example, offers online degrees in engineering
and management-related fields through NYU
Tandon Online . Levels of accreditation vary:
widely respected universities such as Stanford
University and Harvard now deliver online
courses—but other online schools receive little
outside oversight, and some are actually
fraudulent, i.e., diploma mills . In the US, the
Distance Education Accrediting Commission
(DEAC) specializes in the accreditation of
distance education institutions. [54]
In the United States in 2011, it was found that a
third of all the students enrolled in
postsecondary education had taken an
accredited online course in a postsecondary
institution. [55] Even though growth rates are
slowing, enrollment for online courses has been
seen to increase with the advance in technology.
The majority of public and private colleges now
offer full academic programs online. [55] These
include, but are not limited to, training programs
in the mental health, [56] occupational
therapy ,[57][58] family therapy , [59] art
therapy ,[60] physical therapy, [58] and
rehabilitation counseling [61] fields. Even
engineering courses that require the manipulation
and control of machines and robots [62] that are
technically more challenging to learn remotely
are subject to distance learning through the
internet.
Distance education has a long history, but its
popularity and use has grown exponentially as
more advanced technology has become
available. By 2008, online learning programs
were available in the United States in 44 states
at the K-12 level. [63]
Internet forums, online discussion group and
online learning community can contribute to an
efficacious distance education experience.
Research shows that socialization plays an
important role in some forms of distance
education. [64]
E-courses are also a viable option for distance
learning. There are many available that cover a
broad range of topics.
Paced and self-paced
models
Distance education can be delivered in a paced
format similar to traditional campus based
models in which learners commence and
complete a course at the same time. Paced
delivery is currently the most common mode of
distance education delivery. Alternatively, some
institutions offer self-paced programs that allow
for continuous enrollment and the length of time
to complete the course is set by the learner's
time, skill and commitment levels. Paced
courses may be offered in either synchronous
mode, but self-paced courses are almost always
offered asynchronously. Each delivery model
offers both advantages and disadvantages for
students, teachers and institutions.
Kaplan and Haenlein classify distance education
into four groups along the dimensions Time
dependency and Number of participants: 1)
MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses): Open-
access online course (i.e., without specific
participation restrictions) that allows for
unlimited (massive) participation; 2) SPOCs
(Small Private Online Courses): Online course
that only offers a limited number of places and
therefore requires some form of formal
enrollment; 3) SMOCs (Synchronous Massive
Online Courses): Open-access online course that
allows for unlimited participation but requires
students to be "present" at the same time
(synchronously); 4) SSOCs (Synchronous Private
Online Courses): Online course that only offers a
limited number of places and requires students
to be "present" at the same time
(synchronously). [1]
Paced models are a familiar mode as they are
used almost exclusively in campus based
schools. Institutes that offer both distance and
campus programs usually use paced models as
teacher workload, student semester planning,
tuition deadlines, exam schedules and other
administrative details can be synchronized with
campus delivery. Student familiarity and the
pressure of deadlines encourages students to
readily adapt to and usually succeed in paced
models. However, student freedom is sacrificed
as a common pace is often too fast for some
students and too slow for others. In addition life
events, professional or family responsibilities
can interfere with a students capability to
complete tasks to an external schedule. Finally,
paced models allows students to readily form
communities of inquiry[65] and to engage in
collaborative work.
Self-paced courses maximize student freedom,
as not only can students commence studies on
any date, but they can complete a course in as
little time as a few weeks or up to a year or
longer. Students often enroll in self-paced study
when they are under pressure to complete
programs, have not been able to complete a
scheduled course, need additional courses or
have pressure which precludes regular study for
any length of time. The self-paced nature of the
programming, though is an unfamiliar model for
many students and can lead to excessive
procrastination resulting in course incompletion.
Assessment of learning can also be challenging
as exams can be written on any day, making it
possible for students to share examination
questions with resulting loss of academic
integrity. Finally, it is extremely challenging to
organize collaborative work activities, though
some schools[66] are developing cooperative
models based upon networked and connectivist
pedagogies, [67] for use in self-paced programs.
Benefits
Distance learning can expand access to
education and training for both general populace
and businesses since its flexible scheduling
structure lessens the effects of the many time-
constraints imposed by personal responsibilities
and commitments. [68][69] Devolving some
activities off-site alleviates institutional capacity
constraints arising from the traditional demand
on institutional buildings and infrastructure. [68]
Furthermore, there is the potential for increased
access to more experts in the field and to other
students from diverse geographical, social,
cultural, economic, and experiential
backgrounds. [59][69] As the population at large
becomes more involved in lifelong learning
beyond the normal schooling age, institutions
can benefit financially, and adult learning
business courses may be particularly
lucrative. [68][69] Distance education programs
can act as a catalyst for institutional
innovation [68] and are at least as effective as
face-to-face learning programs, [56][57][70]
especially if the instructor is knowledgeable and
skilled. [60][69]
Distance education can also provide a broader
method of communication within the realm of
education. [69] With the many tools and
programs that technological advancements have
to offer, communication appears to increase in
distance education amongst students and their
professors, as well as students and their
classmates. The distance educational increase in
communication, particularly communication
amongst students and their classmates, is an
improvement that has been made to provide
distance education students with as many of the
opportunities as possible as they would receive
in in-person education. The improvement being
made in distance education is growing in tandem
with the constant technological advancements.
Present-day online communication allows
students to associate with accredited schools
and programs throughout the world that are out
of reach for in-person learning. By having the
opportunity to be involved in global institutions
via distance education, a diverse array of thought
is presented to students through communication
with their classmates. This is beneficial because
students have the opportunity to "combine new
opinions with their own, and develop a solid
foundation for learning". [71] It has been shown
through research that "as learners become aware
of the variations in interpretation and
construction of meaning among a range of
people [they] construct an individual meaning",
which can help students become knowledgeable
of a wide array of viewpoints in education. [71]
To increase the likelihood that students will build
effective ties with one another during the course,
instructors should use similar assignments for
students across different locations to overcome
the influence of co-location on relationship
building. [72]
The high cost of education affects students in
higher education, to which distance education
may be an alternative in order to provide some
relief. [70][69] Distance education has been a
more cost-effective form of learning, and can
sometimes save students a significant amount of
money as opposed to traditional education. [69]
Distance education may be able to help to save
students a considerable amount financially by
removing the cost of transportation. [73] In
addition, distance education may be able to save
students from the economic burden of high-
priced course textbooks. Many textbooks are
now available as electronic textbooks, known as
e-textbooks, which can offer digital textbooks for
a reduced price in comparison to traditional
textbooks. Also, the increasing improvements in
technology have resulted in many school
libraries having a partnership with digital
publishers that offer course materials for free,
which can help students significantly with
educational costs. [73]
Within the class, students are able to learn in
ways that traditional classrooms would not be
able to provide. It is able to promote good
learning experiences and therefore, allow
students to obtain higher satisfaction with their
online learning. [74] For example, students can
review their lessons more than once according
to their need. Students can then manipulate the
coursework to fit their learning by focusing more
on their weaker topics while breezing through
concepts that they already have or can easily
grasp. [74] When course design and the learning
environment are at their optimal conditions,
distance education can lead students to higher
satisfaction with their learning experiences. [70]
Studies have shown that high satisfaction
correlates to increased learning. For those in a
healthcare or mental health distance learning
program, online-based interactions have the
potential to foster deeper reflections and
discussions of client issues [58] as well as a
quicker response to client issues, since
supervision happens on a regular basis and is
not limited to a weekly supervision meeting. [61]
[69] This also may contribute to the students
feeling a greater sense of support, since they
have ongoing and regular access to their
instructors and other students. [58][61]
Distance learning may enable students who are
unable to attend a traditional school setting, due
to disability or illness such as decreased
mobility and immune system suppression, to get
a good education. [75] Children who are sick or
are unable to attend classes are able to attend
them in "person" through the use of robot
proxies. This helps the students have
experiences of the classroom and social
interaction that they are unable to receive at
home or the hospital, while still keeping them in
a safe learning environment. Over the last few
years [ when? ] more students are entering safely
back into the classroom thanks to the help of
robots. An article from the New York Times, "A
Swiveling Proxy Will Even Wear a Tutu", explains
the positive impact of virtual learning in the
classroom, [76] and another [77] that explains
how even a simple, stationary telepresence robot
can help. [78] Distance education may provide
equal access regardless of socioeconomic
status or income, area of residence, gender,
race, age, or cost per student. [79] Applying
universal design strategies to distance learning
courses as they are being developed (rather than
instituting accommodations for specific students
on an as-needed basis) can increase the
accessibility of such courses to students with a
range of abilities, disabilities, learning styles,
and native languages. [80] Distance education
graduates, who would never have been
associated with the school under a traditional
system, may donate money to the school. [81]
Distance learning may also offer a final
opportunity for adolescents that are no longer
permitted in the general education population
due to behavior disorders. Instead of these
students having no other academic opportunities,
they may continue their education from their
homes and earn their diplomas, offering them
another chance to be an integral part of society.
Distance learning offers individuals a unique
opportunity to benefit from the expertise and
resources of the best universities currently
available. Students have the ability to
collaborate, share, question, infer, and suggest
new methods and techniques for continuous
improvement of the content. The ability to
complete a course at a pace that is appropriate
for each individual is the most effective manner
to learn given the personal demands on time
and schedule. [69] Self-paced distance learning
on a mobile device, such is a smartphone,
provides maximum flexibility and capability.
Criticism
Barriers to effective distance education include
obstacles such as domestic distractions and
unreliable technology, [82] as well as students'
program costs, adequate contact with teachers
and support services, and a need for more
experience. [83]
Some students attempt to participate in distance
education without proper training with the tools
needed to be successful in the program.
Students must be provided with training
opportunities (if needed) on each tool that is
used throughout the program. The lack of
advanced technology skills can lead to an
unsuccessful experience. Schools have a
responsibility to adopt a proactive policy for
managing technology barriers. [84] Time
management skills and self-discipline in
distance education is just as important as
complete knowledge of the software and tools
being used for learning.
The results of a study of Washington state
community college students showed that
distance learning students tended to drop out
more often than their traditional counterparts due
to difficulties in language, time management,
and study skills. [85]
According to Dr. Pankaj Singhm, director of
Nims University , "distance learning benefits may
outweigh the disadvantages for students in such
a technology-driven society; however before
indulging into use of educational technology a
few more disadvantages should be considered."
He describes that over multiple years, "all of the
obstacles have been overcome and the world
environment for distance education continues to
improve." Dr. Pankaj Singhm also claims there is
a debate to distance education stating, "due to a
lack of direct face-to-face social interaction.
However, as more people become used to
personal and social interaction online (for
example dating, chat rooms, shopping, or
blogging), it is becoming easier for learners to
both project themselves and socialize with
others. This is an obstacle that has
dissipated." [86]
Not all courses required to complete a degree
may be offered online. Health care profession
programs in particular, require some sort of
patient interaction through field work before a
student may graduate. [87] Studies have also
shown that students pursuing a medical
professional graduate degree who are
participating in distance education courses, favor
face to face communication over professor-
mediated chat rooms and/or independent
studies. However, this is little correlation
between student performance when comparing
the previous different distance learning
strategies. [57]
There is a theoretical problem about the
application of traditional teaching methods to
online courses because online courses may have
no upper size limit. Daniel Barwick noted that
there is no evidence that large class size is
always worse or that small class size is always
better, although a negative link has been
established between certain types of instruction
in large classes and learning outcomes; he
argued that higher education has not made a
sufficient effort to experiment with a variety of
instructional methods to determine whether large
class size is always negatively correlated with a
reduction in learning outcomes. [88] Early
proponents of Massive Open Online Courses
( MOOC )s saw them as just the type of
experiment that Barwick had pointed out was
lacking in higher education, although Barwick
himself has never advocated for MOOCs .
There may also be institutional challenges.
Distance learning is new enough that it may be a
challenge to gain support for these programs in
a traditional brick-and-mortar academic learning
environment. [58] Furthermore, it may be more
difficult for the instructor to organize and plan a
distance learning program, [61] especially since
many are new programs and their organizational
needs are different from a traditional learning
program.
Additionally, though distance education offers
industrial countries the opportunity to become
globally informed, there are still negative sides
to it. Hellman states that "These include its cost
and capital intensiveness, time constraints and
other pressures on instructors, the isolation of
students from instructors and their peers,
instructors' enormous difficulty in adequately
evaluating students they never meet face-to-face,
and drop-out rates far higher than in classroom-
based courses." [89]
A more complex challenge of distance education
relates to cultural differences between student
and teachers and among students. Distance
programmes tend to be more diverse as they
could go beyond the geographical borders of
regions, countries, and continents, and cross the
cultural borders that may exist with respect to
race, gender, and religion. That requires a proper
understanding and awareness of the norms,
differences, preconceptions and potential
conflicting issues. [90]
Educational technology
The modern use of electronic educational
technology (also called e-learning) facilitates
distance learning and independent learning by the
extensive use of information and
communications technology (ICT), [69] replacing
traditional content delivery by postal
correspondence. Instruction can be synchronous
and asynchronous online communication in an
interactive learning environment or virtual
communities, in lieu of a physical classroom.
"The focus is shifted to the education transaction
in the form of virtual community of learners
sustainable across time." [91]
One of the most significant issues encountered
in the mainstream correspondence model of
distance education is transactional distance,
which results from the lack of appropriate
communication between learner and teacher.
This gap has been observed to become wider if
there is no communication between the learner
and teacher and has direct implications over the
learning process and future endeavors in
distance education. Distance education providers
began to introduce various strategies,
techniques, and procedures to increase the
amount of interaction between learner and
teacher. These measures e.g. more frequent
face-to-face tutorials, increased use of
information and communication technologies
including teleconferencing and the Internet, were
designed to close the gap in transactional
distance. [92]
Credentials
Main article: Online credentials for learning
Online credentials for learning are digital
credentials that are offered in place of traditional
paper credentials for a skill or educational
achievement. Directly linked to the accelerated
development of internet communication
technologies, the development of digital
badges , electronic passports and massive open
online courses (MOOCs) have a very direct
bearing on our understanding of learning,
recognition and levels as they pose a direct
challenge to the status quo. It is useful to
distinguish between three forms of online
credentials: Test-based credentials, online
badges, and online certificates. [93]
See also
Degree completion program
Distance and on-line learning advocates
Herbert Gross
Linda Harasim
Educational technology
Homeschooling
Learning environment
Low-residency program
Media psychology
New media
Open supported learning
Open-door academic policy
Qualifications frameworks for online learning
Sunrise Semester
Virtual education
Sources
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Further reading
Anderson, Terry. Theory and Practice of Online
Education (2nd ed 2008)
ISBN 9781897425084
Anderson, T., & Dron, J. (2010). Three
generations of distance education pedagogy.
The International Review of Research in Open
and Distance Learning , 12(3), 80-97.
Bates, T. (2005). Technology, e-learning and
distance education : RoutledgeFalmer.
Clark, J. J. (1906). "The Correspondence
School--Its Relation to Technical Education
and Some of Its Results". Science . 24 (611):
327–34. Bibcode : 1906Sci....24..327C .
doi: 10.1126/science.24.611.327 .
PMID 17772791 .
Hampel, Robert L (2010). "The Business of
Education: Home Study at Columbia
University and the University of Wisconsin in
the 1920s and 1930s". Teachers College
Record . 112 (9): 2496–2517.
Holmberg, Börje. Theory and Practice of
Distance Education (2nd ed 1995) online
Kett, Joseph F. Pursuit of Knowledge Under
Difficulties: From Self-Improvement to Adult
Education in America (1994)
ISBN 978-0804726801
Moore, Michael Grahame and William
Anderson (2012). Handbook of Distance
Education (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.
ISBN 978-1-4106-0729-4 . online edition
Major, C.H. Teaching online: A guide to
theory, research, and practice. (Johns Hopkins
University Press, 2015).
Moore, M.G., ed. Contemporary issues in
American distance education (1990)
Peters, O. (1994). Distance education and
industrial production: A comparative
interpretation in outline(1973). Otto Peters on
distance education: The industrialization of
teaching and learning , 107-127.
Saba, F. (2011). Distance Education in the
United States: Past, Present, Future.
Educational Technology , 51(6), 11.
Stubblefield, Harold W. and Patrick Keane.
Adult Education in the American Experience:
From the Colonial Period to the Present
(1994) ISBN 978-0787900250
Taylor, J. C. (2001). Fifth generation distance
education. e-Journal of Instructional Science
and Technology (e-JIST), 4(1), 1-14.
Terry Evans, M. H., David Murphy (Ed.).
(2008). International Handbook of Distance
Education. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing
Limited.
Walsh, Taylor. Unlocking the Gates: How and
Why Leading Universities Are Opening Up
Access to Their Courses (Princeton University
Press, 2011) online
External links
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: ICT in
Education
Distance learning at Curlie
"Radio in education" full text books and
articles online; from 1930s and 1940s
"Issues in Distance Education book series
from Athabasca University Press" . A series
of over 10 books related to distance
education research. Available in print for sale
or online as open access.
The Center on Accessible Distance Learning
(AccessDL) , DO-IT Center, University of
Washington
"Using Telepresence Robots to Bring Online
and Face-to-Face Students Closer." .
Michigan State University Design Studio
Journals
The International Review of Research in Open
and Distance Learning" , widely cited, open
access scholarly journal
The Journal of Distance Education / Revue de
l'Éducation à Distance , scholarly journal
The Journal of Online Learning and
Teaching" , peer-reviewed open access
scholarly journal
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0
unless otherwise noted.
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200 UNIVERSITIES IN AFRICA

Posted: 03 May 2019 08:01 AM PDT

Top 200 Universities in Africa
2019 African University Ranking
2019 Top 200 Universities in Africa
Rank University
1 University of Pretoria
2 University of Cape Town
3 University of the Witwatersrand
4 University of Johannesburg
5 Universiteit Stellenbosch
6 North-West University
7 University of the Western Cape
8 University of Nairobi
9 Cairo University
10 The American University in Cairo
11 University of KwaZulu-Natal
12 University of Lagos
13 Rhodes University
14 Tshwane University of Technology
15 Mansoura University
16 University of Ilorin
17 Universiteit van die Vrystaat
18 Cape Peninsula University of Technolo
19 Ahmadu Bello University
20 University of Khartoum
21 University of Ghana
22 Nelson Mandela University
23 Makerere University
24 University of Fort Hare
25 Universidade Agostinho Neto
26 Universidade Metodista de Angola
27 Universidade Católica de Angola
28 Obafemi Awolowo University
29 Durban University of Technology
30 University of Nigeria
31 Université Kasdi Merbah de Ouargla
32 University of Ibadan
33 Universidade Eduardo Mondlane
34 The German University in Cairo
35 Kenyatta University
36 Université Mohamed Khider de Biskra
37 Addis Ababa University
38 Alexandria University
39 University of Botswana
40 Kwame Nkrumah University of Science
41 Université Abou Bekr Belkaid Tlemcen
42 Université de la Reunion
43 Ain Shams University
44 University of Dar es Salaam
45 Namibia University of Science and Tec
46 Sudan University of Science and Techn
47 Université Abderrahmane Mira de Béjai
48 Universidade Técnica de Angola
49 Université Frères Mentouri de Constant
50 Université Mohammed V
51 Benha University
52 Vaal University of Technology
53 Arab Academy for Science, Technolog
54 Covenant University
55 University of Namibia
56 Federal University of Technology, Minn
57 Université Cadi Ayyad
58 Université Cheikh Anta Diop
59 Landmark University
60 Universidade Independente de Angola
61 Central University of Technology
62 Assiut University
63 Université Ferhat Abbas Sétif 1
64 University of Zambia
65 Rivers State University of Science and
66 Modern Sciences and Arts University
67 University of Tripoli
68 Universidade Pedagógica
69 Zagazig University
70 Universidade Óscar Ribas
71 Université des Sciences et de la Techn
72 Universidade Jean Piaget de Angola
73 Université Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah
74 Université Mohamed Boudiaf de M'sila
75 The British University in Egypt
76 University of Zimbabwe
77 University of Rwanda
78 Federal University of Technology, Akur
79 Jimma University
80 Jomo Kenyatta University of Agricultur
81 Helwan University
82 Walter Sisulu University
83 Strathmore University
84 Al-Azhar University
85 University of Mauritius
86 United States International University A
87 Uganda Christian University
88 University of Gezira
89 The International University of Manage
90 South Valley University
91 University of Benin
92 Federal University, Oye-Ekiti
93 Université Hassiba Ben Bouali de Chlef
94 International University of Africa
95 University of Venda
96 Mount Kenya University
97 University of Education, Winneba
98 Adekunle Ajasin University
99 Babcock University
100 Misr University for Science and Techn
101 Sokoine University of Agriculture
102 University of Cape Coast
103 University of Jos
104 Université Al Akhawayn
105 Tanta University
106 Université Mouloud Maameri de Tizi O
107 Mbarara University of Science and Tec
108 Université Ibn Zohr
109 Midlands State University
110 Université Abdelhamid Ibn Badis de M
111 Ladoke Akintola University of Technolo
112 Université Benyoucef Benkhedda d'Alge
113 University of Limpopo
114 Universidade Mandume Ya Ndemufayo
115 Lagos State University
116 American University of Nigeria
117 Université Ahmed Ben Bella d'Oran 1
118 Université Tahar Moulay de Saida
119 Botswana Accountancy College
120 Fayoum University
121 University of Port Harcourt
122 University of Zululand
123 Mangosuthu University of Technology
124 Université Badji Mokhtar de Annaba
125 Misr International University
126 Université Ibn Tofail
127 Federal University of Agriculture, Abeo
128 Egerton University
129 Botswana International University of Sc
130 Olabisi Onabanjo University
131 Suez Canal University
132 Université Echahid Hamma Lakhdar d'E
133 Université des Sciences et de la Techn
134 Arba Minch University
135 Bahir Dar University
136 Usmanu Danfodio University
137 Université M'hamed Bouguerra de Bou
138 Université Mohammed Premier
139 Hawassa University
140 Bayero University Kano
141 Kafrelsheikh University
142 Université Larbi Tebessi de Tébessa
143 Libyan International Medical University
144 University of Uyo
145 October 6 University
146 Future University in Egypt
147 The University of Dodoma
148 Pharos University in Alexandria
149 University of Swaziland
150 Mekelle University
151 Université Hadj Lakhder de Batna 1
152 Nahda University
153 Moi University
154 Delta University for Science and Techn
155 Menoufia University
156 New Era College
157 Neelain University
158 ABM University College
159 Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti
160 Kwara State University
161 Gaborone University College of Law an
162 BA ISAGO University
163 Nile University
164 Nnamdi Azikiwe University
165 Université Moulay Ismail
166 Enugu State University of Science and
167 Université 20 Août 1955 de Skikda
168 Minia University
169 Sohag university
170 Université Djillali Liabès de Sidi-Bel-Ab
171 Adama Science and Technology Univer
172 Al-Hikmah University
173 Université Larbi Ben Mhidi de Oum El
174 Imperial School of Business and Scien
175 Muhimbili University of Health and Alli
176 Boitekanelo College
177 University of Abuja
178 Université Ziane Achour de Djelfa
179 Mega Size College
180 Université de Sfax
181 Université Hassan II de Casablanca
182 Université 8 Mai 1945 Guelma
183 Michael Okpara University of Agricultur
184 Mzumbe University
185 Universidade Katyavala Bwila
186 École Nationale Supérieure d'Informati
187 Université Saad Dahlab de Blida
188 Africa University
189 Université Mohamed Lamine Debaghin
190 Beni-Suef University
191 Osun State University
192 Université Hassan 1er
193 Damietta University
194 Damanhour University
195 University of Maiduguri
196 University of Benghazi
197 Université Centrale
198 Technical University of Kenya
199 Université Mohamed-Chérif Messaadia
200 Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University

AMERICA NEWS

Posted: 03 May 2019 07:58 AM PDT

Jesse Watters challenges
Rep. Omar: 'Please say one
good thing about America'
By Victor Garcia | Fox News
Fox News' Jesse Watters took on Rep. Ilhan Omar,
D-Minn ., over her criticism of the U.S. government's
role during the ongoing push for regime change
in Venezuela.
"I would issue a challenge to her. Omar, please say
one good thing about America," Watters said on
" The Five" on Thursday.
VENEZUELAN OPPOSITION LEADER JUAN GUAIDO'S
CALL FOR MILITARY UPRISING DRAWS REACTIONS
FROM US, WORLD LEADERS
"We hear her so much saying what's wrong with
America. Just say what you're proud of. I think that
would counterbalance some of the negativity that
you hear coming out of her mouth."
Omar faced a wave of criticism after she argued
that President Trump's administration made the
Venezuelan crisis worse through "bullying" and
applying sanctions to the nation.
"A lot of the policies that we have put in place has
kind of helped lead the devastation in Venezuela
and we have sort of set the stage for where we are
arriving today," Omar told PBS' "Democracy Now!"
Russia and Cuba attempted to exert influence over
the potential transfer of power from disputed
Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro to opposition
leader Juan Guaido.
Watters challenged Omar's accusation that the U.S.
is "bullying" people in Venezuela and criticized
socialism.
"America is not bullying the people of Venezuela. It
is Maduro and the Russian-backed military that are
taking away people's rights and shooting into the
crowd and doing all those things. Also, this is what
socialists do. When something good happens in the
world, what they do is they say why can't America
be like that country? And then when something bad
happens in the world, they say that's America's fault
that that's happening. They can never see the point
that socialism is failing on its own."
CLICK HERE TO GET THE FOX NEWS APP
In his appeal to Omar, Watters also asked the
congresswoman to stop siding with Russia: "At this
point I want her to do this. Stop siding with the
Russians. You say you want to start World War III
over Russian interference with the election; now they
are interfering physically in our hemisphere and
you're siding with them," Watters said.
Fox News' Sam Dorman contributed to this report.

YOUTH EMPOWERMENT

Posted: 03 May 2019 07:54 AM PDT

Youth empowerment is a process where children
and young people are encouraged to take charge
of their lives. They do this by addressing their
situation and then take action in order to
improve their access to resources and transform
their consciousness through their beliefs, values,
and attitudes. [1] Youth empowerment aims to
improve quality of life. Youth empowerment is
achieved through participation in youth
empowerment programs. However scholars
argue that children's rights implementation
should go beyond learning about formal rights
and procedures to give birth to a concrete
experience of rights. [2] There are numerous
models that youth empowerment programs use
that help youth achieve empowerment. A variety
of youth empowerment initiatives are underway
around the world. These programs can be
through non-profit organizations, government
organizations, schools or private organizations.
Youth empowerment is different from youth
development because development is centered
on developing individuals, while empowerment is
focused on creating greater community change
relies on the development of individual
capacity. [3]
Empowerment movements, including youth
empowerment, originate, gain momentum,
become viable, and become institutionalized. [1]
Youth empowerment is often addressed as a
gateway to intergenerational equity, civic
engagement and democracy building . Activities
may focus on youth-led media , youth rights,
youth councils , youth activism, youth involvement
in community decision-making, [4] and other
methods.
Elements of
empowerment
Empowerment theory
Empowerment theory focuses on processes that
enable participation; enhance control through
shared decision making; and create opportunities
to learn, practice, and increase skills. [5][6]
Empowerment theory suggests that engaging
youth in pro-social, meaningful, and community-
enhancing activities that the youth themselves
define and control, helps youth gain vital skills,
responsibilities, and confidence necessary to
become productive and healthy adults. [7]
Types of empowerment
Youth empowerment examines six interdependent
dimensions: psychological, community,
organizational, economic, social and cultural. [1]
[8] Psychological empowerment enhances
individual's consciousness, belief in self-efficacy,
awareness and knowledge of problems and
solutions and of how individuals can address
problems that harm their quality of life. [1] This
dimension aims to create self-confidence and
give youth the skills to acquire knowledge. [8]
Community empowerment focuses on enhancing
the community through leadership development,
improving communication, and creating a
network of support to mobilize the community to
address concerns. [1] Organizational
empowerment aims to create a base of
resources for a community, including voluntary
organizations, unions and associations that aim
to protect, promote and advocate for the
powerless. [1] Economic empowerment teaches
entrepreneurial skills, how to take ownership of
their assets and how to have income security. [8]
Social empowerment teaches youth about social
inclusion and literacy as well as helping kids
find the resources to be proactive in their
communities. [8] Cultural empowerment aims to
recreate cultural practices and redefine cultural
rules and norms for youth. [8] Through these
dimensions of empowerment, programs can
work on empowering youth in one or more
aspects of their lives.
Goals of empowerment
Youth empowerment programs are aimed at
creating healthier and higher qualities of life for
underprivileged or at-risk youth. [1] The five
competencies of a healthy youth are: (1) positive
sense of self, (2) self- control, (3) decision-
making skills, (4) a moral system of belief, and
(5) pro-social connectedness. Developmental
interventions and programs have to be anchored
on these competencies that define positive
outcomes of healthy youth. [1]
Measurable empowerment
Over the last two decades, quality of life (QOL)
has emerged as an important unit of
measurement to evaluate the success of
empowerment programs. [1] It is used as a goal
of programs and as well as an indicator of
effectiveness. However, there is no standard
definition of QOL. A person's QOL is dependent
upon subjective evaluation of the individual
aspects of that individual's life. [1]
Positive development settings
Youth empowerment programs thrive in positive
developmental settings. Positive developmental
settings promote youth competence, confidence
and connections. [9] Two features of the positive
developmental youth settings are supportive
relationships and support for efficacy and
mattering. Supportive relationships are those that
are between youth and non-familial adults that
foster trust and respect. Support for efficacy and
mattering specifically focuses on youth being
active, instrumental agents of change in their
communities, collective decision-making and
adults listen to and respect their voice. [9]
Youth empowerment
programs
There are various types of empowerment
programs across the globe that empower youth
through many different tactics and programs.
Programs can operate in a variety of settings.
The majority of programs operate in more than
one setting, which may be a key factor in their
success. [10] The beneficial outcomes to youth
empowerment programs are improved social
skills, improved behavior, increased academic
achievement, increased self-esteem and
increased self-efficacy. [11]
There are programs are aimed at just
empowering women and young girls. Regardless
of specific goals or methods, empowering
effects include improving women's wellbeing,
self-esteem, and self-efficacy, and enhancing
social status by teaching technical and
organizational skills. [8]
Other youth empowerment programs are focused
on poverty alleviation. Living standards are for
those living in poverty are declining causing
forms of deprivation as it relates to food,
resources and education. [12] Programs aimed at
empowering poor youth, work toward livelihood
protection or livelihood promotion. [12]
There are also empowerment movements that
use the social action model , aiming for
disadvantaged people to become empowered,
organized, and educated so that they may create
change. [1] These programs advocate for
constructive confrontations to enhance the social
power of people who are considered
disadvantaged. Another model is the 5C's model
that focuses on emphasizing competence,
confidence, connection, character and caring. [13]
A sixth C of contribution to society was later
added. [13] This model focuses primarily on
engagement as a key marker of positive youth
development, emphasizing the need to foster
initiative. Youth-adult partnerships are another
type of empowerment method used around the
world. This method has been defined as a
developmental process and a community
practice. The partnership involves people of
different ages working together on community
issues over a period of time. [9] The method
emphasizes reciprocity among adults and youth
with a focus on shared decision making and
reflective learning. The concept of shared control
is key for empowering youth.
Youth empowerment has also been used as a
framework to prevent and reduce youth
violence. [7][14] Research shows that these youth
empowerment programs can improve conflict
avoidance and resolution skills, increase group
leadership skills, and civic efficacy [14] and
improve ethnic identity and reduce racial
conflict. [15]
Examples of youth empowerment
programs
Around the globe there are various
empowerment programs focused on a wide
variety of things and this is not a comprehensive
list. Unsuccessful youth empowerment programs
have not been carefully documented or published
in case studies. [1]
In India, Youth Empowerment Foundation, a not
for profit organization is focused at uplifting the
underprivileged young generation of the society
right from providing them with basic education to
create a strong foundation for their careers, to
developing personality skills, because the youth
is the future of the country.
In Namibia, one popular empowerment program
is Pots of Hope. Pots of Hope's main goal is to
reduce the vulnerability youth to HIV and Aids
through education, information and awareness,
as well as income security projects. [16] Pots of
Hope works by educating, and providing
counseling to those in rural settings who do not
have access to those resources. [16] This
program focuses on organizational
empowerment within the community.
Youth participating in 4-H, a youth
empowerment organization primarily in
the United States.
Within the United States there are countless
empowerment programs for youth. Urban 4-H is
a culturally responsive, community-based
practice that authentically engages families,
youth and the community in the development of
youth. [17] Urban 4-H is an example of
community empowerment that focuses on the
economic and social dimensions of
empowerment. The program helps youth build
skills to enable them to overcome economic and
social barriers while recognizing the importance
of self-directed learning for youth. Urban 4-H
focuses on empowering youth to think critically,
communicate across cultural boundaries and
lead others. [17]
In India, youth empowerment has been taken up
by other organizations run by young people.
Young India Foundation has been working on
youth empowerment by directly engaging young
people and electoral politics, a first for an
organization to do in India. [18]
The United Nations has numerous development
programs, one of them being youth
empowerment programs. The United Nations
provides support to national policy development
surrounding empowerment within the five
regions. [19] They do this by providing evidence-
based policy guidance and programmatic
support by promoting the active participation of
youth in society. The UNDP promotes inclusive
youth participation in effective and democratic
governance, economic empowerment of youth,
strengthened youth engagement in building
resilience in their communities, inclusion of
youth in the future development agenda,
including through consultations and
discussions. [19] The United Nations youth
empowerment programs examine all four
dimensions of youth empowerment and seeks to
improve all of them.
USAID has youth empowerment programs set up
around the world that are aimed at civic
engagement, access to resources and
opportunities for education and employment. [20]
For a more comprehensive list: List of youth
empowerment organizations
Government
involvement in
empowerment
Youth empowerment is often addressed as a
gateway to intergenerational equity, civic
engagement and democracy building . Local,
state, provincial, regional, national, and
international government agencies and nonprofit
community-based organizations provide
programs centered on youth empowerment. [21]
Activities involved therein may focus on youth-
led media , youth rights, youth councils , youth
activism, youth involvement in community
decision-making, [4] and other methods.
Each major political party in the United States,
including the Republicans, the Democrats , and
the Green Party, as well as several major
European, African, South American (Peru), and
Australian political parties have statements
supporting youth empowerment. Youth
empowerment is also a central tenet of the
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the
Child, which every country in the world (minus
the United States and South Sudan ) has signed
into law.
United States
Youth empowerment occurs in homes , at
schools, through youth organizations , government
policy-making and community organizing
campaigns. Major structural activities where
youth empowerment happens throughout society
include community decision-making ,
organizational planning, and education reform.
Educational activities that cite youth
empowerment as an aim include student-
centered learning, popular education, and service
learning. Free schools and youth-led media
organizations often state their intention to
empower youth, as well as youth voice ,
community youth development , and youth
leadership programs. Youth empowerment is
studied by a variety of scholars including Shawn
Ginwright, Henry Giroux , Barry Checkoway, Mike
Males and Marc A. Zimmerman . Their research
is highlighted by advocacy from notable activists
such as William Upski Wimsatt , Alex Koroknay-
Palicz, Salome Chasnoff and Adam Fletcher.
Republic of Ireland
Main article: Comhairle na nÓg
In 2002 Comhairle na nÓg was established in
each local authority area as part of the National
Children's strategy. Comhairle na nÓg is Irish for
Youth Council. These councils are encouraged to
include the participation of young people from
all walks of life and to tackle local issues
affecting young people. It is run by the local
county or city councils under the Office of the
Minister for Children and Youth Affairs. It is a
recognized political organisation by the Irish
Government. An extension of Comhairle na nÓg
is the Comhairle na nÓg National Executive. The
National Executive has one "youth councillor"
from every Comhairle na nÓg and deal with
issues important to young people. These issues
are nominated by young people themselves at an
AGM every two years. The Comhairle na nÓg
National Executive has the opportunity to express
there views in a form of a researched report, ad-
campaign, conferences, seminars and to put
those views to policy makers.
Commonwealth
The 53 member countries of the Commonwealth
of Nations have all signed up to the
Commonwealth Plan of Action for Youth
Empowerment (2007–2015). The Plan of Action
underpins the work of the Commonwealth Youth
Programme (CYP). On the Commonwealth
definition, "Young people are empowered when
they acknowledge that they have or can create
choices in life, are aware of the implications of
those choices, make an informed decision freely,
take action based on that decision and accept
responsibility for the consequences of those
actions. Empowering young people means
creating and supporting the enabling conditions
under which young people can act on their own
behalf, and on their own terms, rather than at the
direction of others."
The Plan of Action for Youth Empowerment was
developed by the Commonwealth Secretariat ,
working closely with Ministers of Youth and
young people themselves. It encourages youth
mainstreaming and contains thirteen action
points for governments. The first of these is:
"Develop and implement measures to promote
the economic enfranchisement of young people"
through a range of measures ranging from micro-
credit and entrepreneurship education through to
reviewing macro-economic planning and trade
regimes and how they affect young people. Other
action points address gender equality, HIV/AIDS,
education, the environment, youth participation in
decision-making, and democracy and human
rights.
Benefits of
empowerment
When youth participate in established
empowerment programs they see a variety of
benefits. The practices of youth involvement and
empowerment become embedded within the
organizational culture and the community
culture. [3] Adults and organizations also benefit
from empowerment programs. The both become
more communicable and responsive to youth in
the community, which leads to program
improvements as well as increased participation
from youth. [3]
Critiques of youth
empowerment
One major critique of youth empowerment is that
most programs take a risk-focused
approach. [13] There has been a major emphasis
on what is going wrong for youth in their lives
rather than what goes right. This portrays young
people as a problem that need to be fixed, and
displays the process of development as a
process of overcoming risk. This may deter
youth from joining youth development programs.
The risked-based model can obscure the fact
that adolescence is a time when young people
master skills and concepts. [13]
See also
List of youth empowerment organizations
One World Youth Project
Youth work
Mature minor doctrine
Positive Youth Development
References
1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Kar, Snehendu B;
Pascual, Catherine A; Chickering, Kirstin L
(1999-12-01). "Empowerment of women
for health promotion: a meta-analysis".
Social Science & Medicine . 49 (11):
1431–1460. doi: 10.1016/
S0277-9536(99)00200-2 .
2. ^ Golay, Dominique; Malatesta, Dominique
(2014). Children's councils
implementation : a path toward
recognition ? In D. Stoecklin & J.-M.
Bonvin (Eds.), Children's Rights and the
Capability Approach. Challenges and
Prospects . Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 109–
130.
3. ^ a b c Ledford, Meredith King; Lucas,
Bronwyn (2013). "Youth Empowerment:
The theory and its
implementation" (PDF). Youth
Empowerment Solutions . Youth
Empowerment Solutions. Retrieved
November 21, 2015.
4. ^ a b Sazama, J. & Young, K. (2006) 15
Points to Successfully Involving Youth in
Decision-Making, Boston: Youth jHGbagY
On Board.
5. ^ Zimmerman, Marc A. (2000-01-01).
"Empowerment Theory". In Rappaport,
Julian; Seidman, Edward (eds.). Handbook
of Community Psychology . Springer US.
pp. 43–63.
doi: 10.1007/978-1-4615-4193-6_2 .
ISBN 9781461368816 .
6. ^ Zimmerman, Marc A. (1995-10-01).
"Psychological empowerment: Issues and
illustrations". American Journal of
Community Psychology . 23 (5): 581–599.
doi: 10.1007/BF02506983 .
ISSN 1573-2770 .
7. ^ a b Reischl, Thomas M.; Zimmerman,
Marc A.; Morrel-Samuels, Susan; Franzen,
Susan P.; Faulk, Monique; Eisman, Andria
B.; Roberts, Everett (2011-12-01). "Youth
empowerment solutions for violence
prevention". Adolescent Medicine: State of
the Art Reviews . 22 (3): 581–600, xiii.
ISSN 1934-4287 . PMID 22423465 .
8. ^ a b c d e f Edralin, Divina M.; Tibon,
Maria Victoria P.; Tugas,, Florenz C. (Jan
2015). "Initiating Women Empowerment
and Youth Development through
Involvement in Non-Formal Education in
Three Selected Parishes: An Action
Research on Poverty Alleviation". DLSU
Business & Economics Review. Vol. 24
(Issue 2,): p108–123. ISSN 0116-7111 .
Retrieved October 9, 2015.
9. ^ a b c Krauss, Steven Eric; Collura,
Jessica; Zeldin, Shepherd; Ortega, Adriana;
Abdullah, Haslinda; Sulaiman, Abdul Hadi
(2013-10-12). "Youth–Adult Partnership:
Exploring Contributions to Empowerment,
Agency and Community Connections in
Malaysian Youth Programs". Journal of
Youth and Adolescence . 43 (9): 1550–
1562. doi : 10.1007/
s10964-013-0027-1 .
ISSN 0047-2891 . PMID 24122395 .
10. ^ Catalano, Richard F.; Berglund, M. Lisa;
Ryan, Jean A. M.; Lonczak, Heather S.;
Hawkins, J. David (2004-01-01). "Positive
Youth Development in the United States:
Research Findings on Evaluations of
Positive Youth Development Programs" .
The Annals of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science . 591 (1): 98–
124. doi: 10.1177/0002716203260102 .
ISSN 0002-7162 .
11. ^ "Youth empowerment programs" .
County Health Rankings & Roadmaps.
Retrieved 2015-11-09.
12. ^ a b Matin, I., & Hulme, D. (2003).
Programs for the poorest: Learning from
the IGVGD program in Bangladesh. World
Development , 31(3), 647-665.
13. ^ a b c d Guerra, Nancy G.; Bradshaw,
Catherine P. (2008-12-01). "Linking the
prevention of problem behaviors and
positive youth development: Core
competencies for positive youth
development and risk prevention". New
Directions for Child and Adolescent
Development . 2008 (122): 1–17.
doi: 10.1002/cd.225 .
ISSN 1534-8687 . PMID 19021244 .
14. ^ a b Franzen, Susan; Morrel-Samuels,
Susan; Reischl, Thomas M.; Zimmerman,
Marc A. (2009-10-16). "Using Process
Evaluation to Strengthen Intergenerational
Partnerships in the Youth Empowerment
Solutions Program". Journal of Prevention
& Intervention in the Community . 37 (4):
289–301.
doi: 10.1080/10852350903196290 .
ISSN 1085-2352 . PMID 19830624 .
15. ^ Fuentes, Vanessa E.; Goncy, Elizabeth
A.; Sutherland, Kevin S. (2016-05-17).
"Cross-Cultural Perspectives After
Participation in the YES Program: A Pilot
Study" . Journal of Youth Development .
10 (3). ISSN 2325-4017 .
16. ^ a b Mutumbulwa, Fransina. "Empowering
youth and women through Pots of Hope."
Sister Namibia 20.3 (2008): 16+. Global
Issues In Context. Web. 9 Oct. 2015.
17. ^ a b Landrieu, Josey; Pierson Russo,
Jessica. "The What, How, and Why of
21st Century Urban Youth Development".
Reclaiming Children & Youth. Vol. 23
(Issue 3): p48–52. ISSN 1089-5701 .
Retrieved October 9, 2015.
18. ^ "Young India Foundation – Empowering
young people from the Panchayat to the
Parliament" .
19. ^ a b "Youth empowerment" . UNDP .
Retrieved 2015-11-09.
20. ^ "Global Highlights: USAID Youth
Programs" . www.usaid.gov .
2012-08-10. Retrieved 2015-11-09.
21. ^ (1998) "Examining empowerment: A
'how-to' guide for youth development
professionals" Journal of Extension,
December 1998
Further reading
Harris, A., Wyn, J. & Younes, S. (2010).
Beyond apathetic or activist youth: 'Ordinary'
young people and contemporary forms of
participation, Young, 18, 1, 9-32.
Sukarieh, M. & Tannock, S. (2011). The
positive imperative: a critical look at the 'new'
youth development movement, Journal of
Youth Studies, 14, 6, 675-691.
Evans S. (2007) Youth Sense of community:
voice and power in community context,
Journal of Community Psychology, 35, No. 6,
693–709.
Morsillo J., Prilleltensky I. (2007) Social
Action with youth: interventions, evaluation
and psychopolitical validity, Journal of
Community Psychology, 35, No. 6, 725–740
Tsekoura, M. (2016). Spaces for Youth
Participation and Youth Empowerment Case
Studies from the UK and Greece. Young, DOI:
10.1177/1103308815618505.
Zeldin S., Petrokubi, MacNeil C. (2008)
Youth-Adult Partnerships in Decision Making:
Disseminating and Implementing an
Innovative Idea into Established Organizations
and Communities, American Journal of
Community Psychology, 41, 262–277.
Roger A. Hart (2013). Children's Participation:
The Theory and Practice of Involving Young
Citizens in Community Development and
Environmental Care . Routledge.
ISBN 978-1-134-17222-1 .
"What works in enhancing social and
emotional skills development during
childhood and adolescence?" (PDF). WHO.
2015.
European Commission (2015). Empowering
young people to participate in society
(PDF). Publications Office of the European
Union. ISBN 978-92-79-46640-3 . ( Council of
Europe and European Union Report )
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0
unless otherwise noted.
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WHAT IS EDUCATION?

Posted: 03 May 2019 07:52 AM PDT

IT IS A PERMANENT CHANGE IN LEARNING.. OKECHUKWU CHIDOLUO VITUS

INFORMAL EDUCATION

Posted: 03 May 2019 07:50 AM PDT

Informal Education is a general term for
education that can occur outside of a structured
curriculum. [1] Informal Education encompasses
student interests within a curriculum in a regular
classroom, but is not limited to that setting. [1] It
works through conversation, and the exploration
and enlargement of experience. Sometimes there
is a clear objective link to some broader plan,
but not always. The goal is to provide learners
with the tools he or she needs to eventually
reach more complex material. [2] It can refer to
various forms of alternative education, such as:
Unschooling or homeschooling, Autodidacticism
(Self-teaching), Youth work, and Informal learning
Informal Education consists of accidental and
purposeful ways of collaborating on new
information. [2] It can be discussion based and
focuses on bridging the gaps between traditional
classroom settings and life outside of the
classroom. [2]
Role of Informal
Education
People interpret information differently, and
therefore a structured curriculum may not allow
all learners to understand the information.
Informal education is less controlled than the
average classroom setting, which is why
informal education can be so powerful. [3]
Informal education can help individuals learn to
react to and control different situations and
settings. In addition, it combines social entities
that are important for learning. Informal
Education may be viewed as the learning that
comes as a part of being involved in youth and
community organizations. [1] This type of
education is a spontaneous process, which helps
people to learn information in a new way. It
helps to cultivate communities, associations and
relationships that make for a positive learning
environment. [2]
Characteristics of
Informal Education [4]
1. Informal Education looks to create or
deepen situations where people can learn,
explore and enlarge experiences, and
make changes.
2. Provides an environment where everyone
can learn together and can scaffold off of
one another.
3. Understanding that the activity can be
based on any form of learning, the
teaching does not have to be deliberate,
more so implied. We give students the
tools to do complex materials over time,
rather than teaching the complex material
and then giving the tools.
4. Focuses on the social aspects of learning,
and how important collaborative learning
is.
5. The tools students are given are tangible
for the processes in which they will be
applied.
6. Bridges the gap between school and life.
7. Allows students a choice in learning, and
how to approach the material.
8. Make learning accessible in every day life
and in the future.
9. Informal Education is driven by
conversation and interacting with others.
Informal Education
offers the following
1. Responsiveness when interacting with the
environment.
2. Possibility to act freely in unknown
situations.
3. Possibility for an individual to learn
without any obligations or restrictions.
4. Allows for free choice and changes in
interests.
5. Ability to create ones own identity.
Informal Education
tends to emphasize
certain values it
includes
1. Work for the well being of all.
2. Respect the unique value and dignity of
each human being.
3. Dialogue.
4. Equality and justice.
5. Democracy and the active involvement of
people in the issues that affect their life.
(Jeff and Smith 2005:95-6)
Informal Education focuses on values. There is
no curriculum or guiding plan for a lot of work.
Informal Education in
Indigenous African
Communities
Informal education has been the practice of
indigenous communities in Africa as long as
people have lived there. The tradition of African
education has long been closely intertwined with
the daily life of the African people with the idea
that children "learnt what they lived". [5] The
philosophy of traditional African education
suggests that one's education cannot be
separated from the everyday life and the
"curriculum" is thus considered "a way of life"
with the ultimate goal being to create a
"complete individual, [and] a lifelong learner". [6]
The knowledge and practices that are important
to the community are generally passed down
through the sharing of memories and
participation in cultural activities. Their education
system serves as "the information base for the
community, which facilitates communication and
decision-making". [6] Similar to other indigenous
communities such as the Chillihuani in Peru,
African education is created with goals in mind
but is not limited to typical classroom settings;
students continually participate in various
learning activities as they grow in the
community. [6]
The culture within traditional African
communities contain methods of learning.
Through song and dance children learn more
about their language as well as how to read and
write. Oral traditions are used to teach children
about history and morals as well as other forms
of culture and practical skills for survival. In
northern Tanzania and southern Kenya, the
children of the Maasai pastoralists learn skills
such as "where to find water and green shrubs
that can be fed to young calves" in case of
drought. [6] Children are encouraged to show
respect to their elders and through this, children
learn how to show respect though their actions
and words. A child can even learn the
circumstances of their birth through their names.
Onipede, a Yoruba name in Nigeria, suggests
that the child was born soon after the death of a
family member. [6] Through their traditional
science, children learn how to contribute to
health and food production. everything that is a
part of their life is used as a means to learn
about themselves, their communities, and their
culture.
Advantages
If a person masters a skill by becoming deeply
engaged in solving a problem, then giving
students real world issues or opportunities to
solve problems in their own lives and
communities would significantly motivate and
help them to master new concepts. [1] Teaching
students new scientific concepts by using
cultural tools could eliminate the time spent
trying to figure out whether concepts are useful
or not. This may motivate learners and help
them to master what we teach from the start. If
we applied english and grammar lessons to
effectively communicate with others in the
community, students would be more inclined to
effectively master these concepts since they
would be using them for individual or group
purposes. Finally, formal schooling, unlike an
informal school setting, discourages students
from learning and problem solving on their
own. [3]
See also
Nonformal learning
Formal learning
Informal learning
References
1. ^ a b c d Rogoff, Barbara; Callanan,
Maureen; Gutiérrez, Kris; Erickson,
Frederick (March 2016). "The Organization
of Informal Learning". Review of Research
in Education. 40 : 356–401.
doi: 10.3102/0091732x16680994 .
2. ^ a b c d Rogoff, Barbara (2003). The
Cultural Nature of Human Development .
Oxford University Press.
ISBN 9780199813629 .
3. ^ a b Callanan, Maureen; Cervantes,
Christi; Loomis, Molly (2011). "Informal
Learning". WIREs Cognitive Science . 2:
646–655. doi: 10.1002/wcs.143 .
4. ^ Brown, John; Collins, Alan; Duguid, Paul
(1989). "Situated Cognition and The
Culture of Learning". Educational
Researcher . 18: 32–42.
doi: 10.2307/1176008 .
JSTOR 1176008 .
5. ^ "INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION" .
sitwe . 2011-10-30. Retrieved 2018-05-08.
6. ^ a b c d e Omolewa, Michael (2007).
"Traditional African Modes of Education:
Their Relevance in the Modern World".
International Review of Education /
Internationale Zeitschrift für
Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue
Internationale de l'Education . 53 (5/6):
593–612. JSTOR 27715419 .
Bibliography
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989).
Situated cognition and the culture of learning.
18(1), 32.
Blyth, C. (2008). The Art of Conversation.
London: John Murray.
Callanan, M., Cervantes, C., & Loomis, M.
(2011). Informal learning.2, 646. doi:10.1002
Dewey, J. (1933). How We Think. New York:
D. C. Heath.
Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of
human development. NY: Oxford University
Press.
Sennett, R. (2012) Together. The rituals,
pleasures and politics of cooperation.
London: Allen Lane.
Zeldin (1999). Conversation: How Talk Can
Change Your Life. London: Harvill Press.
External links
Formal vs. Informal Education , WGBH.
Informal Education , The National Academy
of Sciences .
Research on Learning in Formal and Informal
Settings , National Science Foundation .
Moving Beyond Broadcast and Traditional
Pedagogy: Making a Children's Documentary
for the New Media Landscape Master of
Fine Arts Thesis, Science and Natural History
Filmmaking, Montana State University.
[1]
http://infed.org/mobi/what-is-informal-
education/
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0
unless otherwise noted.
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FORMAL EDUCATION

Posted: 03 May 2019 07:49 AM PDT

This article relies largely or entirely on a single
source. Relevant discussion may be found on
the talk page . Please help improve this article
by introducing citations to additional sources.
(February 2018)
Formal learning is education normally delivered
by trained teachers in a systematic intentional
way within a school , higher education or
university. It is one of three forms of learning as
defined by the OECD, the others being informal
learning, which typically takes place naturally as
part of some other activity, and non-formal
learning, which includes everything else, such as
sports instruction provided by non-trained
educators without a formal curriculum . [1]
Formal learning theory
Formal learning theory is the formal study of
inductive problems and their intrinsic solvability
for both ideal and computable agents. Modal
operator theory has very little to do with formal
learning theory especially with respects to
1. The significance of method and
methodological recommendations.
2. The idea of weakening the convergence
criterion in order to get more problems
within the scope of reliable inquiry.
The origin of formal
learning theory
Research on logical reliability theory was first
pursued under the name formal learning theory,
given to the discipline by (Osherson et al.
1986). This name is somewhat misleading, as it
suggests a study of how cognizers learn. With
this in mind, Kevin Kelly renamed the approach
computational epistemology (1991, 1996), which
reflects its historical roots in computability
theory while avoiding misinterpretation.
Computer scientists are in the business of
recommending and providing programs and
algorithms for various empirical purposes. From
this perspective learning is about reliable
convergence to correct answers on various
empirical questions. Thus learning theory is the
formal study of inductive problems and their
complexity and solvability for both ideal and
Turing-computable agents.
In the middle of 1960s, (Gold 1967) applied
formal learning theory to theories of language
acquisition in which a child is asked to reliably
converge to a grammar for its natural language.
Very briefly, languages are modeled as recursive
enumerable sets (or r.e sets) and a child is
conceived as a function required to converge to
a correct r.e index for a given set over all
possible enumerations of the set. About the
same time H.Reicherbanch's students, Hilary
Putnam (Putnam 1963) applied learning theory
to criticize Carnap's confirmation theory. Putnam
at tempted to show Carnap's justification
standards for a probabilistic theory of
confirmation, there exists a hypothesis the
Carnapian extrapolation algorithm cannot learn
even given every possible instance of the
hypothesis. Further mathematical treatments of
the problems of induction were provided by
(Blum and Blum 1975) and (Angluin 1980).
Formal learning theory never really caught on
among philosophers, perhaps because
philosophers found it hard to see how the formal
results concerning induction apply to classical
philosophical. Due to the work of Kevin T. Kelly,
Clark Glymour, Dan Osherson and others, formal
learning theory has been adapted to questions in
philosophy of science, methodology and
epistemology.
Logical Reliability
Formal learning theory offers a well-defined
notion of reliability for methods, which
importantly does not serve as a condition for
knowledge. Though it is not an epistemological
paradigm in the traditional sense, learning theory
can play an important role in knowledge studies.
See also
Educational stage
Learning society
Nonformal learning
References
1. ^ "Recognition of Non-formal and Informal
Learning - Home" . OECD. Retrieved 9
March 2014.
External links
http://mot.ruc.dk/flt.htm
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0
unless otherwise noted.
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TRADING

Posted: 03 May 2019 07:46 AM PDT

This article is about the economic
mechanism. For other uses, see Trade
(disambiguation) .
A trader in Germany, 16th century
The San Juan de Dios Market in Guadalajara,
Jalisco .
The Liberty to Trade as Buttressed by
National Law (1909) by George Howard
Earle, Jr.
Trade involves the transfer of goods or services
from one person or entity to another, often in
exchange for money . A system or network that
allows trade is called a market.
An early form of trade, barter , saw the direct
exchange of goods and services for other goods
and services. [1] [ need quotation to verify ] Barter
involves trading things without the use of
money. [1] Later, one bartering party started to
involve precious metals , which gained symbolic
as well as practical importance. [ citation needed ]
Modern traders generally negotiate through a
medium of exchange, such as money. As a
result, buying can be separated from selling , or
earning . The invention of money (and later credit,
paper money and non-physical money ) greatly
simplified and promoted trade. Trade between
two traders is called bilateral trade , while trade
involving more than two traders is called
multilateral trade.
Trade exists due to specialization and the
division of labor, a predominant form of
economic activity in which individuals and
groups concentrate on a small aspect of
production, but use their output in trades for
other products and needs. [2] Trade exists
between regions because different regions may
have a comparative advantage (perceived or
real) in the production of some trade-able
commodity —including production of natural
resources scarce or limited elsewhere, or
because different regions' sizes may encourage
mass production. [3] In such circumstances,
trade at market prices between locations can
benefit both locations.
Retail trade consists of the sale of goods or
merchandise from a very fixed location[4] (such
as a department store, boutique or kiosk), online
or by mail , in small or individual lots for direct
consumption or use by the purchaser. [5]
Wholesale trade is defined [ by whom?] as traffic
in goods that are sold as merchandise to
retailers , or to industrial, commercial,
institutional, or other professional business
users, or to other wholesalers and related
subordinated services.
Etymology
Commerce is derived from the Latin
commercium , from cum "together" and merx ,
"merchandise." [6]
Trade from Middle English trade ("path, course of
conduct"), introduced into English by Hanseatic
merchants, from Middle Low German trade
("track, course"), from Old Saxon trada ("spoor,
track"), from Proto-Germanic *tradō ("track,
way"), and cognate with Old English tredan ("to
tread").
History
See also: Economic history of the world and
Timeline of international trade
Prehistory
Trade originated with human communication in
prehistoric times. Trading was the main facility
of prehistoric people, who bartered goods and
services from each other before the innovation of
modern-day currency. Peter Watson dates the
history of long-distance commerce from circa
150,000 years ago. [7]
In the Mediterranean region the earliest contact
between cultures were of members of the
species Homo sapiens principally using the
Danube river, at a time beginning 35,000–30,000
BCE. [8][9][10]
Some trace the origins of commerce to the very
start of transaction in prehistoric times. Apart
from traditional self-sufficiency , trading became
a principal facility of prehistoric people, who
bartered what they had for goods and services
from each other.
The caduceus has
been used today
as the symbol of
commerce[11]
with which
Mercury has
traditionally been
associated.
Ancient history
Ancient Etruscan " aryballoi" terracota
vessels unearthed in the 1860s at
Bolzhaya Bliznitsa tumulus near
Phanagoria , South Russia (then part of
the Bosporan Kingdom of Cimmerian
Bosporus ); on exhibit at the Hermitage
Museum in Saint Petersburg.
Trade is believed to have taken place throughout
much of recorded human history. There is
evidence of the exchange of obsidian and flint
during the stone age . Trade in obsidian is
believed to have taken place in Guinea from
17,000 BCE. [12][13]
Trade in the stone age was investigated by
Robert Carr Bosanquet in excavations of
1901. [15][16] Trade is believed to have first
begun in south west Asia. [17][18]
Archaeological evidence of obsidian use provides
data on how this material was increasingly the
preferred choice rather than chert from the late
Mesolithic to Neolithic, requiring exchange as
deposits of obsidian are rare in the
Mediterranean region. [19][20][21]
Obsidian is thought to have provided the
material to make cutting utensils or tools,
although since other more easily obtainable
materials were available, use was found
exclusive to the higher status of the tribe using
"the rich man's flint". [17]
Obsidian was traded at distances of 900
kilometres within the Mediterranean region. [22]
Trade in the Mediterranean during the Neolithic
of Europe was greatest in this material. [19][23]
Networks were in existence at around 12,000
BCE[24] Anatolia was the source primarily for
trade with the Levant, Iran and Egypt according
to Zarins study of 1990. [25][26][27] Melos and
Lipari sources produced among the most
widespread trading in the Mediterranean region
as known to archaeology. [28]
The Sari-i-Sang mine in the mountains of
Afghanistan was the largest source for trade of
lapis lazuli . [29][30] The material was most
largely traded during the Kassite period of
Babylonia beginning 1595 BCE. [31][32]
Later trade
Mediterranean and Near East
Ebla was a prominent trading centre during the
third millennia, with a network reaching into
Anatolia and north Mesopotamia. [28][33][34]
[35]
A map of the Silk Road trade route
between Europe and Asia.
Materials used for creating jewelry were traded
with Egypt since 3000 BCE. Long-range trade
routes first appeared in the 3rd millennium BCE,
when Sumerians in Mesopotamia traded with the
Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley. The
Phoenicians were noted sea traders, traveling
across the Mediterranean Sea , and as far north
as Britain for sources of tin to manufacture
bronze . For this purpose they established trade
colonies the Greeks called
emporia . [ citation needed ] [36]
From the beginning of Greek civilization until the
fall of the Roman empire in the 5th century, a
financially lucrative trade brought valuable spice
to Europe from the far east, including India and
China. Roman commerce allowed its empire to
flourish and endure. The latter Roman Republic
and the Pax Romana of the Roman empire
produced a stable and secure transportation
network that enabled the shipment of trade
goods without fear of significant piracy, as Rome
had become the sole effective sea power in the
Mediterranean with the conquest of Egypt and
the near east. [37]
In ancient Greece Hermes was the god of
trade[38][39] (commerce) and weights and
measures, [40] for Romans Mercurius also god of
merchants, whose festival was celebrated by
traders on the 25th day of the fifth month. [41]
[42] The concept of free trade was an antithesis
to the will and economic direction of the
sovereigns of the ancient Greek states. Free
trade between states was stifled by the need for
strict internal controls (via taxation) to maintain
security within the treasury of the sovereign,
which nevertheless enabled the maintenance of a
modicum of civility within the structures of
functional community life. [43][44]
The fall of the Roman empire, and the
succeeding Dark Ages brought instability to
Western Europe and a near collapse of the trade
network in the western world. Trade however
continued to flourish among the kingdoms of
Africa, Middle East, India, China and Southeast
Asia. Some trade did occur in the west. For
instance, Radhanites were a medieval guild or
group (the precise meaning of the word is lost
to history) of Jewish merchants who traded
between the Christians in Europe and the
Muslims of the Near East. [45]
The Orient
Archaeological evidence (Greenberg 1951) of the
first use of trade-marks are from China dated
about 2700 BCE. [46]
Mesoamerica
Tajadero or axe money used as currency
in Mesoamerica . It had a fixed worth of
8,000 cacao seeds, which were also
used as currency. [47]
The emergence of exchange networks in the Pre-
Columbian societies of and near to Mexico are
known to have occurred within recent years
before and after 1500 BCE. [48]
Trade networks reached north to Oasisamerica.
There is evidence of established maritime trade
with the cultures of northwestern South America
and the Caribbean.
Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, commerce developed in
Europe by trading luxury goods at trade fairs.
Wealth became converted into movable wealth or
capital . Banking systems developed where
money on account was transferred across
national boundaries. Hand to hand markets
became a feature of town life, and were
regulated by town authorities.
Western Europe established a complex and
expansive trade network with cargo ships being
the main workhorse for the movement of goods,
Cogs and Hulks are two examples of such cargo
ships. [49] Many ports would develop their own
extensive trade networks. The English port city
of Bristol traded with peoples from what is
modern day Iceland, all along the western coast
of France, and down to what is now Spain. [50]
A map showing the main trade routes for goods
within late medieval Europe.
During the Middle Ages, Central Asia was the
economic center of the world. [51] The Sogdians
dominated the East-West trade route known as
the Silk Road after the 4th century CE up to the
8th century CE, with Suyab and Talas ranking
among their main centers in the north. They were
the main caravan merchants of Central Asia.
From the 8th to the 11th century, the Vikings
and Varangians traded as they sailed from and to
Scandinavia. Vikings sailed to Western Europe,
while Varangians to Russia. The Hanseatic
League was an alliance of trading cities that
maintained a trade monopoly over most of
Northern Europe and the Baltic, between the 13th
and 17th centuries.
The Age of Sail and the Industrial
Revolution
Vasco da Gama pioneered the European Spice
trade in 1498 when he reached Calicut after
sailing around the Cape of Good Hope at the
southern tip of the African continent. Prior to
this, the flow of spice into Europe from India
was controlled by Islamic powers, especially
Egypt. The spice trade was of major economic
importance and helped spur the Age of
Discovery in Europe. Spices brought to Europe
from the Eastern world were some of the most
valuable commodities for their weight,
sometimes rivaling gold .
From 1070 onward, kingdoms in West Africa
became significant members of global trade. [52]
This came initially through the movement of gold
and other resources sent out by Muslim traders
on the Trans-Saharan trading network. [52] Later,
West Africa exported gold, spices, cloth, and
slaves to European traders such as the
Portuguese, Dutch, and English. [52] This was
often in exchange for cloth, iron, or cowrie shells
which were used locally as currency. [52]
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Portuguese
gained economic advantage in the Kingdom of
Kongo due to different philosophies of trade. [52]
Whereas Portuguese traders concentrated on the
accumulation of capital, in Kongo spiritual
meaning was attached to many objects of trade.
According to economic historian Toby Green, in
Kongo "giving more than receiving was a symbol
of spiritual and political power, and
privilege." [52]
In the 16th century, the Seventeen Provinces
were the centre of free trade, imposing no
exchange controls , and advocating the free
movement of goods. Trade in the East Indies
was dominated by Portugal in the 16th century,
the Dutch Republic in the 17th century, and the
British in the 18th century. The Spanish Empire
developed regular trade links across both the
Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans.
Danzig in the 17th century, a port of the
Hanseatic League .
In 1776, Adam Smith published the paper An
Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth
of Nations . It criticised Mercantilism , and argued
that economic specialisation could benefit
nations just as much as firms. Since the division
of labour was restricted by the size of the
market, he said that countries having access to
larger markets would be able to divide labour
more efficiently and thereby become more
productive . Smith said that he considered all
rationalisations of import and export controls
"dupery", which hurt the trading nation as a
whole for the benefit of specific industries.
In 1799, the Dutch East India Company, formerly
the world's largest company, became bankrupt ,
partly due to the rise of competitive free trade.
Berber trade with Timbuktu, 1853.
19th century
In 1817, David Ricardo , James Mill and Robert
Torrens showed that free trade would benefit the
industrially weak as well as the strong, in the
famous theory of comparative advantage . In
Principles of Political Economy and Taxation
Ricardo advanced the doctrine still considered
the most counterintuitive in economics :
When an inefficient producer sends the
merchandise it produces best to a country
able to produce it more efficiently, both
countries benefit.
The ascendancy of free trade was primarily
based on national advantage in the mid 19th
century. That is, the calculation made was
whether it was in any particular country's self-
interest to open its borders to imports.
John Stuart Mill proved that a country with
monopoly pricing power on the international
market could manipulate the terms of trade
through maintaining tariffs , and that the response
to this might be reciprocity in trade policy.
Ricardo and others had suggested this earlier.
This was taken as evidence against the universal
doctrine of free trade, as it was believed that
more of the economic surplus of trade would
accrue to a country following reciprocal, rather
than completely free, trade policies. This was
followed within a few years by the infant industry
scenario developed by Mill promoting the theory
that government had the duty to protect young
industries, although only for a time necessary for
them to develop full capacity. This became the
policy in many countries attempting to
industrialise and out-compete English exporters.
Milton Friedman later continued this vein of
thought, showing that in a few circumstances
tariffs might be beneficial to the host country;
but never for the world at large. [53]
20th century
The Great Depression was a major economic
recession that ran from 1929 to the late 1930s.
During this period, there was a great drop in
trade and other economic indicators.
The lack of free trade was considered by many
as a principal cause of the depression causing
stagnation and inflation. [54] Only during the
World War II the recession ended in the United
States. Also during the war, in 1944, 44
countries signed the Bretton Woods Agreement,
intended to prevent national trade barriers, to
avoid depressions. It set up rules and
institutions to regulate the international political
economy : the International Monetary Fund and
the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (later divided into the World Bank
and Bank for International Settlements). These
organisations became operational in 1946 after
enough countries ratified the agreement. In 1947,
23 countries agreed to the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade to promote free trade. [55]
The European Union became the world's largest
exporter of manufactured goods and services,
the biggest export market for around 80
countries. [56]
21st century
See also: Globalization
Today, trade is merely a subset within a
complex system of companies which try to
maximize their profits by offering products and
services to the market (which consists both of
individuals and other companies) at the lowest
production cost . A system of international trade
has helped to develop the world economy but, in
combination with bilateral or multilateral
agreements to lower tariffs or to achieve free
trade, has sometimes harmed third-world
markets for local products.
Free trade
Main article: Free trade
Free trade advanced further in the late 20th
century and early 2000s:
1992 European Union lifted barriers to internal
trade in goods and labour .
January 1, 1994 the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) took effect.
1994 The GATT Marrakech Agreement
specified formation of the WTO.
January 1, 1995 World Trade Organization
was created to facilitate free trade, by
mandating mutual most favoured nation
trading status between all signatories.
EC was transformed into the European Union,
which accomplished the Economic and
Monnetary Union (EMU) in 2002, through
introducing the Euro, and creating this way a
real single market between 13 member states
as of January 1, 2007.
Intérêts des nations de l'Europe,
dévélopés relativement au commerce
(1766)
2005, the Central American Free Trade
Agreement was signed; It includes the United
States and the Dominican Republic.
Perspectives
Protectionism
Main article: Protectionism
Protectionism is the policy of restraining and
discouraging trade between states and contrasts
with the policy of free trade. This policy often
takes of form of tariffs and restrictive quotas .
Protectionist policies were particularly prevalent
in the 1930s, between the Great Depression and
the onset of World War II.
Religion
Islamic teachings encourage trading (and
condemn usury or interest ). [57][58]
Judeao-Christian teachings prohibit fraud and
dishonest measures, and historically also
forbade the charging of interest on loans. [59]
[60]
Development of money
Main article: History of money
A Roman denarius.
The first instances of money were objects with
intrinsic value. This is called commodity money
and includes any commonly available
commodity that has intrinsic value; historical
examples include pigs, rare seashells, whale's
teeth, and (often) cattle. In medieval Iraq, bread
was used as an early form of money. In Mexico
under Montezuma cocoa beans were money.
[6]
Currency was introduced as a standardised
money to facilitate a wider exchange of goods
and services. This first stage of currency, where
metals were used to represent stored value, and
symbols to represent commodities, formed the
basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over
1500 years.
Numismatists have examples of coins from the
earliest large-scale societies, although these
were initially unmarked lumps of precious
metal. [61]
Trends
Doha rounds
Main article: Doha round
The Doha round of World Trade Organization
negotiations aimed to lower barriers to trade
around the world, with a focus on making trade
fairer for developing countries. Talks have been
hung over a divide between the rich developed
countries , represented by the G20 , and the major
developing countries. Agricultural subsidies are
the most significant issue upon which agreement
has been hardest to negotiate. By contrast, there
was much agreement on trade facilitation and
capacity building. The Doha round began in
Doha, Qatar , and negotiations were continued in:
Cancún , Mexico; Geneva , Switzerland ; and Paris,
France and Hong Kong. [ citation needed ]
China
Beginning around 1978, the government of the
People's Republic of China (PRC) began an
experiment in economic reform. In contrast to
the previous Soviet -style centrally planned
economy , the new measures progressively
relaxed restrictions on farming, agricultural
distribution and, several years later, urban
enterprises and labor. The more market-oriented
approach reduced inefficiencies and stimulated
private investment, particularly by farmers, that
led to increased productivity and output. One
feature was the establishment of four (later five)
Special Economic Zones located along the
South-east coast. [ citation needed ]
The reforms proved spectacularly successful in
terms of increased output, variety, quality, price
and demand . In real terms, the economy
doubled in size between 1978 and 1986,
doubled again by 1994, and again by 2003. On
a real per capita basis, doubling from the 1978
base took place in 1987, 1996 and 2006. By
2008, the economy was 16.7 times the size it
was in 1978, and 12.1 times its previous per
capita levels. International trade progressed even
more rapidly, doubling on average every 4.5
years. Total two-way trade in January 1998
exceeded that for all of 1978; in the first quarter
of 2009, trade exceeded the full-year 1998 level.
In 2008, China's two-way trade totaled US$2.56
trillion. [62]
In 1991 China joined the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation group, a trade-promotion
forum.< https://www.apec.org/About-Us/About-
APEC/Member-Economies > In 2001, it also
joined the World Trade Organization.< https://
www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/
china_e.htm >
International trade
Main article: International trade
International trade is the exchange of goods and
services across national borders. In most
countries, it represents a significant part of GDP .
While international trade has been present
throughout much of history (see Silk Road,
Amber Road), its economic, social, and political
importance have increased in recent centuries,
mainly because of Industrialization, advanced
transportation, globalization , multinational
corporations, and outsourcing . [ citation needed ]
Empirical evidence for the success of trade can
be seen in the contrast between countries such
as South Korea, which adopted a policy of
export-oriented industrialization, and India, which
historically had a more closed policy. South
Korea has done much better by economic
criteria than India over the past fifty years,
though its success also has to do with effective
state institutions. [ citation needed ]
Trade sanctions
Trade sanctions against a specific country are
sometimes imposed, in order to punish that
country for some action. An embargo , a severe
form of externally imposed isolation, is a
blockade of all trade by one country on another.
For example, the United States has had an
embargo against Cuba for over 40 years. [63]
Trade barriers
International trade, which is governed by the
World Trade Organization , can be restricted by
both tariff and non-tariff barriers. International
trade is usually regulated by governmental
quotas and restrictions, and often taxed by
tariffs. Tariffs are usually on imports, but
sometimes countries may impose export tariffs
or subsidies . Non-tariff barriers include Sanitary
and Phytosanitary rules, labeling requirements
and food safety regulations. All of these are
called trade barriers . If a government removes all
trade barriers, a condition of free trade exists. A
government that implements a protectionist
policy establishes trade barriers. There are
usually few trade restrictions within countries
although a common feature of many developing
countries is police and other road blocks along
main highways, that primarily exist to extract
bribes. [ citation needed ]
Fair trade
The "fair trade" movement, also known as the
"trade justice" movement, promotes the use of
labour , environmental and social standards for
the production of commodities , particularly those
exported from the Third and Second Worlds to
the First World . Such ideas have also sparked a
debate on whether trade itself should be
codified as a human right. [64]
Importing firms voluntarily adhere to fair trade
standards or governments may enforce them
through a combination of employment and
commercial law . Proposed and practiced fair
trade policies vary widely, ranging from the
common prohibition of goods made using slave
labour to minimum price support schemes such
as those for coffee in the 1980s. Non-
governmental organizations also play a role in
promoting fair trade standards by serving as
independent monitors of compliance with
labeling requirements. [ citation needed ] As such,
it is a form of Protectionism.
See also
Economics portal
Accounting
Advertising
Bachelor of Commerce
Business
Capitalism
Commercial law
Distribution (business)
Wholesale
Retailing
Cargo
Eco commerce
Economic globalization
Economy
Electronic commerce
Export
Fair
Finance
Financial market
Fishery
Harvest
Industry
Import
Laissez-faire
Manufacturing
Marketing
Marketplace
Mass production
Master of Commerce
Merchandising
List of trading companies
Notes
1. ^ a b Samuelson, P (1939). "The Gains
from International Trade". The Canadian
Journal of Economics and Political
Science . 5 (2): 195–205.
doi: 10.2307/137133 .
JSTOR 137133 .
2. ^ Dollar, D; Kraay, A (2004). "Trade,
Growth, and Poverty" (PDF). The
Economic Journal. 114 (493): F22–F49.
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.509.1584 .
doi: 10.1111/
j.0013-0133.2004.00186.x . [ dead link ]
3. ^ Munim, Ziaul Haque; Schramm, Hans-
Joachim (2018). "The impacts of port
infrastructure and logistics performance
on economic growth: the mediating role
of seaborne trade". Journal of Shipping
and Trade . 3 (1): 1–19. doi: 10.1186/
s41072-018-0027-0 .
4. ^ Compare peddling and other types of
retail trade:Hoffman, K. Douglas, ed.
(2005). Marketing principles and best
practices (3 ed.). Thomson/South-
Western. p. 407.
ISBN 978-0-324-22519-8 . Retrieved
2018-05-03. "Five types of nonstore
retailing will be discussed: street
peddling, direct selling, mail-order,
automatic-merchandising machine
operators, and electronic shopping."
5. ^ "Distribution Services" . Foreign
Agricultural Service . 2000-02-09. Archived
from the original on 2006-05-15.
Retrieved 2006-04-04.
6. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
"Commerce" . Encyclopædia Britannica .
6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
p. 766.
7. ^ Watson (2005) , Introduction.
8. ^ D Abulafia; O Rackham; M Suano
(2008-07-31), The Mediterranean in
History , Getty Publications, 1 Mar 2011,
ISBN 978-1-60606-057-5 , retrieved
2012-06-26
9. ^ V Stefansson. Great Adventures and
Explorations: From the Earliest Times to
the Present As Told by the Explorers
Themselves Kessinger Publishing, 30
May 2005 ISBN 1-4179-9090-2 Retrieved
2012-06-26 [ dead link ]
10. ^ National Maritime Historical Society.
Sea History , Issues 13-25 published by
National Maritime Historical Society 1979.
Retrieved 2012-06-26
11. ^ Hans Biedermann, James Hulbert
(trans.), Dictionary of Symbolism - Cultural
Icons and the Meanings behind Them , p.
54.
12. ^ (secondary)G G Lowder – Studies in
volcanic petrology: I. Talasea, New
Guinea. II. Southwest Utah University of
California, 1970 Retrieved 2012-06-28
13. ^ T Darvill (2011-03-23), The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology , Oxford
University Press, 10 Oct 2008,
ISBN 978-0-19-953404-3 , retrieved
2012-06-28
14. ^ HIH Prince Mikasa no Miya Takahito –
Essays on Anatolian Archaeology Otto
Harrassowitz Verlag, 1993Retrieved
2012-06-16
15. ^ Vernon Horace Rendall, ed. (1904). The
Athenaeum . J. Francis. Retrieved
2012-06-09
16. ^ Donald A. Mackenzie – Myths of Crete
and Pre-Hellenic Europe – published
1917 – ISBN 1-60506-375-4 Retrieved
2012-06-09
17. ^ a b R L Smith (2008-07-31), Premodern
Trade in World History , Taylor & Francis,
2009, ISBN 978-0-415-42476-9 , retrieved
2012-06-15
18. ^ P Singh – Neolithic cultures of western
Asia Seminar Press, 20 Aug 1974
19. ^ a b J Robb (2007-07-23), The Early
Mediterranean Village: Agency, Material
Culture, and Social Change in Neolithic
Italy , Cambridge University Press, 23
July 2007, ISBN 978-0-521-84241-9 ,
retrieved 2012-06-11
20. ^ P Goldberg, V T Holliday, C Reid Ferring
– Earth Sciences and Archaeology
Springer, 2001 ISBN 0-306-46279-6
Retrieved 2012-06-28
21. ^ S L Dyson, R J Rowland – Archaeology
And History In Sardinia From The Stone
Age To The Middle Ages: Shepherds,
Sailors, & Conquerors University of
Pennsylvania – Museum of Archaeology,
2007 ISBN 1-934536-02-4 Retrieved
2012-06-28
22. ^ Williams-Thorpe, O. (1995). "Obsidian in
the Mediterranean and the Near East: A
Provenancing Success Story".
Archaeometry . 37 (2): 217–48.
doi: 10.1111/
j.1475-4754.1995.tb00740.x .
23. ^ D Harper – etymology online
Retrieved 2012-06-09
24. ^ A. J. Andrea (2011-03-23), World
History Encyclopedia, Volume 2 , ABC-
CLIO, 2011, ISBN 978-1-85109-930-6 ,
retrieved 2012-06-11
25. ^ T A H Wilkinson – Early Dynastic Egypt:
Strategies, Society and
Security [ dead link ]
26. ^ secondary – [1] + [2] + [3] +
[4] + [5]
27. ^ (was secondary) Pliny the Elder
(translated by J Bostock , H T Riley )
(1857), The natural history of Pliny,
Volume 6 , H G Bohn 1857,
ISBN 978-1-85109-930-6 , retrieved
2012-06-11
28. ^ a b E Blake; A B Knapp (2008-04-15),
The Archaeology Of Mediterranean
Prehistory , John Wiley & Sons, 21 Feb
2005, ISBN 978-0-631-23268-1 , retrieved
2012-06-22
29. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson – Early Dynastic
Egypt: Strategies, Society and Security
Routledge, 8 Aug 2001 Retrieved
2012-07-03 [ dead link ]
30. ^ D Collon – Near Eastern Seals
University of California Press, 4 Dec 1990
Retrieved 2012-07-03
ISBN 0-520-07308-8 (Interpreting the
past: British Museum
PublicationsArmenian Research Center
collection)
31. ^ G Leick – The Babylonian world
Routledge 2007 Retrieved 2012-07-03
ISBN 1-134-26128-4
32. ^ S Bertman – Handbook To Life In
Ancient Mesopotamia Oxford University
Press, 7 Jul 2005 Retrieved 2012-07-03
ISBN 0-19-518364-9
33. ^ L S Etheredge (2008-07-31), Syria,
Lebanon, and Jordan , The Rosen
Publishing Group, 15 Jan 2011,
ISBN 978-1-61530-329-8 , retrieved
2012-06-15
34. ^ M Dumper; B E Stanley (2007), Cities of
The Middle East and North Africa: A
Historical Encyclopedia , ABC-CLIO,
2007, ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5 , retrieved
2012-06-28
35. ^ B.Gascoigne et al – History World .net
36. ^ Ivan Dikov (July 12, 2015). "Bulgarian
Archaeologists To Start Excavations of
Ancient Greek Emporium in Thracians'
Odrysian Kingdom" . Archaeology in
Bulgaria . Retrieved 28 October 2010. "An
emporium (in Latin; "emporion" in Greek)
was a settlement reserved as a trading
post, usually for the Ancient Greeks, on
the territory of another ancient nation, in
this case the Ancient Thracian Odrysian
Kingdom (5th century BC – 1st century
AD), the most powerful Thracian state."
37. ^ Pax Romana let average villagers
throughout the Empire conduct day to day
affairs without fear of armed attack.
38. ^ P D Curtin – Cross-Cultural Trade in
World History Cambridge University
Press, 25 May 1984 ISBN 0-521-26931-8
Retrieved 2012-06-25
39. ^ N. O. Brown – Hermes the Thief: The
Evolution of a Myth SteinerBooks, 1 Mar
1990 ISBN 0-940262-26-6 Retrieved
2012-06-25
40. ^ D Sacks, O Murray – A Dictionary of the
Ancient Greek World Oxford University
Press, 6 Feb 1997 ISBN 0-19-511206-7
Retrieved 2012-06-26
41. ^ Alexander S. Murray – Manual of
Mythology Wildside Press LLC, 30 May
2008 ISBN 1-4344-7028-8 Retrieved
2012-06-25
42. ^ John R. Rice – Filled With the Spirit
Sword of the Lord Publishers, 1 Aug 2000
ISBN 0-87398-255-X Retrieved
2012-06-25
43. ^ Johannes Hasebroek – Trade and
Politics in Ancient Greece Biblo &
Tannen Publishers, 1 Mar 1933 Retrieved
2012-07-04 ISBN 0-8196-0150-0
44. ^ Cambridge dictionaries online
45. ^ Moshe, Gil. "The Rādhānite Merchants
and the Land of Rādhān". Journal of the
Economic and Social History of the Orient .
17 (3): 299.
46. ^ AS Greenberg – J. Pat. Off. Soc'y, 1951
– HeinOnline
47. ^ "Aztec Hoe Money" . National Museum
of American History . Retrieved 6 October
2018.
48. ^ K G Hirth – American Antiquity Vol. 43,
No. 1 (Jan., 1978), pp. 35–45
Retrieved 2012-06-28
49. ^ McGrail, Sean (2001). Boats of the
World : From the Stone Age to Medieval
Times . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
50. ^ Poole, Austin Lane (1958). Medieval
England . Oxford: Clarendon Press.
51. ^ Beckwith (2011) , p. xxiv.
52. ^ a b c d e f Green, Toby, 1974-. A fistful
of shells : West Africa from the rise of the
slave trade to the age of revolution .
Chicago. ISBN 9780226644578 .
OCLC 1051687994 .
53. ^ Price theory Milton Friedman
54. ^ (secondary) British Broadcasting
Corporation – history
55. ^ (secondary) M Smith – V. Gollancz,
1996 ISBN 0-575-06150-2
56. ^ "EU position in world trade" . European
Commission. Retrieved 7 March 2016.
57. ^ Nomani & Rahnema (1994) , p. ?. "I want
nine out of ten people from my Ummah
(nation) as traders" and "Trader, who did
trading in truth, and sold the right quantity
and quality of goods, he will stand along
Prophets and Martyrs, on Judgment day".
58. ^ "O ye who believe! Eat not up your
property among yourselves in vanities; but
let there be among you traffic and trade
by mutual good-will." Quran 4:29 and
"Allah has allowed trading and forbidden
usury." Quran 2:275
59. ^ Leviticus 19:13
60. ^ Leviticus 19:35
61. ^ Gold was an especially common form of
early money, as described in Davies
(2002) .
62. ^ Division, US Census Bureau Foreign
Trade. "Foreign Trade: Data" .
www.census.gov . Retrieved 2017-05-07.
63. ^ "U.S.–Cuba Relations" . Council on
Foreign Relations. Retrieved 2017-05-07.
64. ^ "Should trade be considered a human
right?" . COPLA. 9 December 2008.
Archived from the original on 29 April
2011.
Bibliography
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Trade.
Beckwith, Christopher I (2011) [2009].
Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central
Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present.
Princeton: University Press.
ISBN 978-0-691-15034-5 .
Bernstein, William (2008). A Splendid
Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World. New
York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-4416-4 .
Davies, Glyn (2002) [1995]. Ideas: A History
of Money from Ancient Times to the Present
Day . Cardiff: University of Wales Press.
ISBN 978-0-7083-1773-0 .
Nomani, Farhad; Rahnema, Ali (1994). Islamic
Economic Systems. New Jersey: Zed Books.
ISBN 978-1-85649-058-0 .
Paine, Lincoln (2013). The Sea and
Civilisation: a Maritime History of the World.
Atlantic. (Covers sea-trading over the whole
world from ancient times.)
Watson, Peter (2005). Ideas: A History of
Thought and Invention from Fire to Freud. New
York: HarperCollins Publishers.
ISBN 978-0-06-621064-3 .
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Trade
Look up trade in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Agritrade Resource material on trade by
ACP countries
World Bank's World Integrated Trade
Solution provides summary trade statistics
and custom query features
World Bank's Preferential Trade Agreement
Database
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unless otherwise noted.
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